Effect of concrete stress states on carbonation depth of concrete
Abstract
Carbonation can lead to reduction of alkalinity of concrete and initiation of steel reinforcement corrosion. In durability design of concrete structures, the carbonation depth should be duly considered. However, the concrete stress state would influence the carbonation depth, and there has been inadequate research on such effect. In this study, it is proposed to introduce a stress influence coefficient to the concrete carbonation depth model. With reference to the experimental data from eleven research studies in the literature encompassing both tensile and compressive stress states, the relationship between stress influence coefficient and concrete stress ratio is quantitatively investigated, and mathematical equations relating the stress influence coefficient with the concrete stress ratio are established. Comparative study with three typical existing groups of equations shows that the proposed equations of stress influence coefficient are more reasonable and have a higher reliability. The effects of carbonation time, mix proportions of concrete on stress influence coefficient are also analysed, and the magnitudes of the effects are found to be approximately within ±10%. Finally, the modified carbonation depth models are proposed and verified by the experimental data, which suggests that the proposed models are of desirable accuracy. Adoption of the proposed equations as the modified formula of stress influence coefficient in the concrete carbonation depth model for practical applications is recommended.
Keyword : carbonation depth model, concrete carbonation, concrete stress state, stress influence coefficient
How to Cite
Wang, J., Ng, P.-L., Su, H., Chen, J., & Du, J. (2019). Effect of concrete stress states on carbonation depth of concrete. Journal of Civil Engineering and Management, 25(6), 518-530. https://doi.org/10.3846/jcem.2019.10398
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
References
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Bouchaala, F., Payan, C., Garnier, V., & Balayssac, J. P. (2011). Carbonation assessment in concrete by nonlinear ultrasound. Cement and Concrete Research, 41, 557-559. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cemconres.2011.02.006
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Chen, L. T. (2007). Research on concrete carbonation model and its parameters (Dissertation). Xi’an University of Architecture and Technology, China. https://doi.org/10.7666/d.d194716
GB/T 50082. (2009). Standard for test methods of long-term performance and durability of ordinary concrete. Beijing: China Architecture and Building Press.
Ghantous, R. M., Poyet, S., L’Hostis, V., Tran, N. C., & François, R. (2017). Effect of crack openings on carbonation-induced corrosion. Cement and Concrete Research, 95, 257-269. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cemconres.2017.02.014
Heiyantuduwa, R., Alexander, M. G., & Mackechnie, J. R. (2006). Performance of a penetrating corrosion inhibitor in concrete affected by carbonation-induced corrosion. Journal of Materials in Civil Engineering, 18(6), 842-850. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)0899-1561(2006)18:6(842)
Hills, T. P., Gordon, F., Florin, N. H., & Fennell, P. S. (2015). Statistical analysis of the carbonation rate of concrete. Cement and Concrete Research, 72, 98-107. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cemconres.2015.02.007
Huang, T. (2013). Experimental study on the interrelation of concrete carbonation and chloride corrosion under load (Dissertation). Zhejiang University, China.
Ishida, T., & Li, C. H. (2008). Modeling of carbonation based on thermo-hygro physics with strong coupling of mass transport and equilibrium in micro-pore structure of concrete. Journal of Advanced Concrete Technology, 6(2), 303-316. https://doi.org/10.3151/jact.6.303
Jiang, C., Gu, X. L., Zhang, W. P., & Zou, W. (2015). Modeling of carbonation in tensile zone of plain concrete beams damaged by cyclic loading. Construction and Building Materials, 77, 479-488. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2014.12.088
Jin, L., Zhang, R. B., Du, X. L., & Li, Y. (2015). Multi-scale analytical theory of the diffusivity of concrete subjected to mechanical stress. Construction and Building Materials, 95, 171-185. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2015.07.123
Kari, O. P., Puttonen, J., & Skantz, E. (2014). Reactive transport modelling of long-term carbonation. Cement and Concrete Composites, 52(8), 42-53. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cemconcomp.2014.05.003
Khunthongkeaw, J., Tangtermsirikul, S., & Leelawat, T. (2006). A study on carbonation depth prediction for fly ash concrete. Construction and Building Materials, 20(9), 744-753. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2005.01.052
Kobayashi, K., Suzuki, K., & Uno, Y. (1994). Carbonation of concrete structures and decomposition of C-S-H. Cement and Concrete Research, 24(1), 55-61. https://doi.org/10.1016/0008-8846(94)90082-5
Li, D., Chen, B., Sun, H., Memon, S. A., Deng, X., Wang, Y., & Xing, F. (2018). Evaluating the effect of external and internal factors on carbonation of existing concrete building structures. Construction and Building Materials, 167, 73-81. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2018.01.127
Li, G., Dong, L., Bai, Z., Lei, M., & Du, J. M. (2017a). Predicting carbonation depth for concrete with organic film coatings combined with ageing effects. Construction and Building Materials, 142, 59-65. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2017.03.063
Li, Y., Du, D., Liu, W., & Zhang, L. (2017b). Experimental and numerical investigation of carbonation mechanism for concrete with blended admixtures under load. Concrete, 10, 1519. https://doi.org/10.3969/j.issn.1002-3550.2017.10.005
Liu, J. (2008b). Durability test of prestressed concrete members (Dissertation). Tongji University, China.
Liu, R. G., Lu, C. H., Lei, L. H., & Lv, Z. T. (2004). Study on durability of modern prestressed concrete structure in carbonation. Industrial Construction, 34(4), 69-72. https://doi.org/10.13204/j.gyjz2004.04.020
Liu, W. L. (2008a). Research on carbonation rule of fly ash concrete under bending loading and environment (Dissertation). Xi’an University of Architecture and Technology, China. https://doi.org/10.7666/d.d195966
Liu, Y. Q. (1997). Practical calculation model of reinforced bar corrosion caused by concrete carbonation (Dissertation). Tongji University, China.
Neves, R., Branco, F., & Brito, J. D. (2013). Field assessment of the relationship between natural and accelerated concrete carbonation resistance. Cement and Concrete Composites, 41(4), 9-15. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cemconcomp.2013.04.006
Nguyen, T. T. H., Bary, B., & Larrard, T. D. (2015). Coupled carbonation-rust formation-damage modeling and simulation of steel corrosion in 3D mesoscale reinforced concrete. Cement and Concrete Research, 74, 95-107. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cemconres.2015.04.008
Niu, D. T. (2003). Durability and life forecast of reinforced concrete structure. Beijing: Science Press.
Pan, H. K. (2005). Durability and reliability of underground engineering structures based on concrete carbonation (Dissertation). Tongji University, China. https://doi.org/10.7666/d.y846763
Papadakis, V. G., Vayenas, C. G., & Fardis, M. N. (1989). A reaction engineering approach to the problem of concrete carbonation. AIChE Journal, 35(10), 1639-1650. https://doi.org/10.1002/aic.690351008
Papadakis, V. G., Vayenas, C. G., & Fardis, M. N. (1991a). Fundamental modeling and experimental investigation of concrete carbonation. ACI Materials Journal, 88(4), 363-373. https://doi.org/10.14359/1863
Papadakis, V. G., Vayenas, C. G., & Fardis, M. N. (1991b). Physical and chemical characteristics affecting the durability of concrete. ACI Materials Journal, 88(2), 186-196.
Paul, S. C., Panda, B., Huang, Y., Garg, A., & Peng, X. (2018). An empirical model design for evaluation and estimation of carbonation depth in concrete. Measurement, 124, 205-210. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.measurement.2018.04.033
Possan, E., Thomaz, W. A., Aleandri, G. A., Felix, E. F., & Santos, A. C. P. (2017). CO2 uptake potential due to concrete carbonation: A case study. Case Studies in Construction Materials, 6, 147-161. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cscm.2017.01.007
Ruan, X., & Pan, Z. C. (2012). Mesoscopic simulation method of concrete carbonation process. Structure and Infrastructure Engineering, 8(2), 99-110. https://doi.org/10.1080/15732479.2011.605370
Shi, Q. L. (2008). Experimental study on carbonation durability of concrete under stress state (Dissertation). Central South University, China. https://doi.org/10.7666/d.y1324263
Shui, Z. H., Yu, R., Chen, Y. X., Duan, P., Ma, J. T., & Wang, X. P. (2018). Improvement of concrete carbonation resistance based on a structure modified layered double hydroxides (LDHs): Experiments and mechanism analysis. Construction and Building Materials, 176, 228-240. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2018.04.222
Steffens, A., Dinkler, D., & Ahrens, H. (2002). Modeling carbonation for corrosion risk prediction of concrete structures. Cement and Concrete Research, 32(6), 935-941. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0008-8846(02)00728-7
Tang, J., Wu, J., Zou, Z., Yue, A., & Mueller, A. (2018). Influence of axial loading and carbonation age on the carbonation resistance of recycled aggregate concrete. Construction and Building Materials, 173, 707-717. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2018.03.269
Tu, Y. M. (2002). Research on the mechanism of the durability of modern prestressed concrete structures (Dissertation). Southeast University, China.
Wang, J., Ng, P. L., Su, H., & Du, J. S. (2019). Meso-scale modelling of stress effect on chloride diffusion in concrete using three-phase composite sphere model. Materials and Structures, 52(3), 1-23. https://doi.org/10.1617/s11527-019-1355-8
Wang, J., Su, H., & Du, J. (2018). Influence of coupled effects between flexural tensile stress and carbonation time on the carbonation depth of concrete. Construction and Building Materials, 190, 439-451. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2018.09.117
Wang, M. (2012). Carbonation and chloride ion erosion test and theoretical analysis of steamed prestressed concrete (Dissertation). Central South University, China. https://doi.org/10.7666/d.y2197234
Wang, W., Lu, C., Li, Y., Yuan, G., & Li, Q. (2017). Effects of stress and high temperature on the carbonation resistance of fly ash concrete. Construction and Building Materials, 138, 486-495. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2017.02.039
Wang, Y. B. (2018). Research on carbonization of concrete box girder under bending load (Dissertation). Lanzhou Jiaotong University, China.
Wu, Y. X. (2009). Test of carbonation and chloride ion erosion of prestressed concrete members (Dissertation). Tongji University, China.
Xu, J., & Li, F. M. (2017). A meso-scale model for analyzing the chloride diffusion of concrete subjected to external stress. Construction and Building Materials, 130, 11-21. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2016.11.054
Xue, L. (2016). Study on concrete carbonation under different stress states. Highways and Transportation in Inner Mongolia, 5, 32-34. https://doi.org/10.19332/j.cnki.10050574.2016.05.009
Yang, L. D., Pan, H. K., Zhu, Y. Z., & Wu, Z. Z. (2008). Experimental study of concrete’s carbonation resistance under combined action of factors. Journal of Building Materials, 11(3), 345-348. https://doi.org/10.3969/j.issn.1007-9629.2008.03.017
Zhang, D. F. (2001). Research on the durability of modern prestressed concrete structures (Dissertation). Southeast University, China.
Zhang, P., Wang, S., Han, J., & Liu, W. (2017). Carbonation resistance and microstructure evolution of concrete under static load test. Concrete, 10, 45-51. https://doi.org/10.3969/j.issn.1002-3550.2017.10.012
Zhang, Y. S., Sun, W., Chen, S., Guo, F., & Zhao, Q. (2007). 1D and 2D carbonation of fly ash concrete under flexural stress. Journal of Southeast University (Natural Science Edition), 37(1), 118-122. https://doi.org/10.3321/j.issn:1001-0505.2007.01.025
Zheng, J. L., & Huang, L. P. (2013). Experimental study on carbonation of self-compacting concrete under tensile and compressive stresses. Journal of Building Materials, 16(1), 115-120. https://doi.org/10.3969/j.issn.1007-9629.2013.01.022
Zhou, S. B. (2011). Study on experiment for the influence of environmental factors and bending load on anti-corrosion performance of concrete (Dissertation). Zhejiang University of Technology, China. https://doi.org/10.7666/d.y2068743
Zhou, Y., Gencturk, B., Willam, K., & Attar, A. (2015). Carbonation-induced and chloride-induced corrosion in reinforced concrete structures. Journal of Materials in Civil Engineering, 27(9), 04014245. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)MT.1943-5533.0001209
Borges, P. H. R., Costa, J. O., Milestone, N. B., Lynsdale, C. J., & Streatfield, R. E. (2010). Carbonation of CH and C-S-H in composite cement pastes containing high amounts of BFS. Cement and Concrete Research, 40(2), 284-292. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cemconres.2009.10.020
Bouchaala, F., Payan, C., Garnier, V., & Balayssac, J. P. (2011). Carbonation assessment in concrete by nonlinear ultrasound. Cement and Concrete Research, 41, 557-559. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cemconres.2011.02.006
CECS 220. (2007). Standard for durability assessment of concrete structures. Beijing: China Architecture and Building Press.
Chang, C. F., & Chen, J. W. (2006). The experimental investigation of concrete carbonation depth. Cement and Concrete Research, 36, 1760-1767. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cemconres.2004.07.025
Chen, L. T. (2007). Research on concrete carbonation model and its parameters (Dissertation). Xi’an University of Architecture and Technology, China. https://doi.org/10.7666/d.d194716
GB/T 50082. (2009). Standard for test methods of long-term performance and durability of ordinary concrete. Beijing: China Architecture and Building Press.
Ghantous, R. M., Poyet, S., L’Hostis, V., Tran, N. C., & François, R. (2017). Effect of crack openings on carbonation-induced corrosion. Cement and Concrete Research, 95, 257-269. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cemconres.2017.02.014
Heiyantuduwa, R., Alexander, M. G., & Mackechnie, J. R. (2006). Performance of a penetrating corrosion inhibitor in concrete affected by carbonation-induced corrosion. Journal of Materials in Civil Engineering, 18(6), 842-850. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)0899-1561(2006)18:6(842)
Hills, T. P., Gordon, F., Florin, N. H., & Fennell, P. S. (2015). Statistical analysis of the carbonation rate of concrete. Cement and Concrete Research, 72, 98-107. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cemconres.2015.02.007
Huang, T. (2013). Experimental study on the interrelation of concrete carbonation and chloride corrosion under load (Dissertation). Zhejiang University, China.
Ishida, T., & Li, C. H. (2008). Modeling of carbonation based on thermo-hygro physics with strong coupling of mass transport and equilibrium in micro-pore structure of concrete. Journal of Advanced Concrete Technology, 6(2), 303-316. https://doi.org/10.3151/jact.6.303
Jiang, C., Gu, X. L., Zhang, W. P., & Zou, W. (2015). Modeling of carbonation in tensile zone of plain concrete beams damaged by cyclic loading. Construction and Building Materials, 77, 479-488. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2014.12.088
Jin, L., Zhang, R. B., Du, X. L., & Li, Y. (2015). Multi-scale analytical theory of the diffusivity of concrete subjected to mechanical stress. Construction and Building Materials, 95, 171-185. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2015.07.123
Kari, O. P., Puttonen, J., & Skantz, E. (2014). Reactive transport modelling of long-term carbonation. Cement and Concrete Composites, 52(8), 42-53. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cemconcomp.2014.05.003
Khunthongkeaw, J., Tangtermsirikul, S., & Leelawat, T. (2006). A study on carbonation depth prediction for fly ash concrete. Construction and Building Materials, 20(9), 744-753. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2005.01.052
Kobayashi, K., Suzuki, K., & Uno, Y. (1994). Carbonation of concrete structures and decomposition of C-S-H. Cement and Concrete Research, 24(1), 55-61. https://doi.org/10.1016/0008-8846(94)90082-5
Li, D., Chen, B., Sun, H., Memon, S. A., Deng, X., Wang, Y., & Xing, F. (2018). Evaluating the effect of external and internal factors on carbonation of existing concrete building structures. Construction and Building Materials, 167, 73-81. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2018.01.127
Li, G., Dong, L., Bai, Z., Lei, M., & Du, J. M. (2017a). Predicting carbonation depth for concrete with organic film coatings combined with ageing effects. Construction and Building Materials, 142, 59-65. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2017.03.063
Li, Y., Du, D., Liu, W., & Zhang, L. (2017b). Experimental and numerical investigation of carbonation mechanism for concrete with blended admixtures under load. Concrete, 10, 1519. https://doi.org/10.3969/j.issn.1002-3550.2017.10.005
Liu, J. (2008b). Durability test of prestressed concrete members (Dissertation). Tongji University, China.
Liu, R. G., Lu, C. H., Lei, L. H., & Lv, Z. T. (2004). Study on durability of modern prestressed concrete structure in carbonation. Industrial Construction, 34(4), 69-72. https://doi.org/10.13204/j.gyjz2004.04.020
Liu, W. L. (2008a). Research on carbonation rule of fly ash concrete under bending loading and environment (Dissertation). Xi’an University of Architecture and Technology, China. https://doi.org/10.7666/d.d195966
Liu, Y. Q. (1997). Practical calculation model of reinforced bar corrosion caused by concrete carbonation (Dissertation). Tongji University, China.
Neves, R., Branco, F., & Brito, J. D. (2013). Field assessment of the relationship between natural and accelerated concrete carbonation resistance. Cement and Concrete Composites, 41(4), 9-15. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cemconcomp.2013.04.006
Nguyen, T. T. H., Bary, B., & Larrard, T. D. (2015). Coupled carbonation-rust formation-damage modeling and simulation of steel corrosion in 3D mesoscale reinforced concrete. Cement and Concrete Research, 74, 95-107. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cemconres.2015.04.008
Niu, D. T. (2003). Durability and life forecast of reinforced concrete structure. Beijing: Science Press.
Pan, H. K. (2005). Durability and reliability of underground engineering structures based on concrete carbonation (Dissertation). Tongji University, China. https://doi.org/10.7666/d.y846763
Papadakis, V. G., Vayenas, C. G., & Fardis, M. N. (1989). A reaction engineering approach to the problem of concrete carbonation. AIChE Journal, 35(10), 1639-1650. https://doi.org/10.1002/aic.690351008
Papadakis, V. G., Vayenas, C. G., & Fardis, M. N. (1991a). Fundamental modeling and experimental investigation of concrete carbonation. ACI Materials Journal, 88(4), 363-373. https://doi.org/10.14359/1863
Papadakis, V. G., Vayenas, C. G., & Fardis, M. N. (1991b). Physical and chemical characteristics affecting the durability of concrete. ACI Materials Journal, 88(2), 186-196.
Paul, S. C., Panda, B., Huang, Y., Garg, A., & Peng, X. (2018). An empirical model design for evaluation and estimation of carbonation depth in concrete. Measurement, 124, 205-210. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.measurement.2018.04.033
Possan, E., Thomaz, W. A., Aleandri, G. A., Felix, E. F., & Santos, A. C. P. (2017). CO2 uptake potential due to concrete carbonation: A case study. Case Studies in Construction Materials, 6, 147-161. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cscm.2017.01.007
Ruan, X., & Pan, Z. C. (2012). Mesoscopic simulation method of concrete carbonation process. Structure and Infrastructure Engineering, 8(2), 99-110. https://doi.org/10.1080/15732479.2011.605370
Shi, Q. L. (2008). Experimental study on carbonation durability of concrete under stress state (Dissertation). Central South University, China. https://doi.org/10.7666/d.y1324263
Shui, Z. H., Yu, R., Chen, Y. X., Duan, P., Ma, J. T., & Wang, X. P. (2018). Improvement of concrete carbonation resistance based on a structure modified layered double hydroxides (LDHs): Experiments and mechanism analysis. Construction and Building Materials, 176, 228-240. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2018.04.222
Steffens, A., Dinkler, D., & Ahrens, H. (2002). Modeling carbonation for corrosion risk prediction of concrete structures. Cement and Concrete Research, 32(6), 935-941. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0008-8846(02)00728-7
Tang, J., Wu, J., Zou, Z., Yue, A., & Mueller, A. (2018). Influence of axial loading and carbonation age on the carbonation resistance of recycled aggregate concrete. Construction and Building Materials, 173, 707-717. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2018.03.269
Tu, Y. M. (2002). Research on the mechanism of the durability of modern prestressed concrete structures (Dissertation). Southeast University, China.
Wang, J., Ng, P. L., Su, H., & Du, J. S. (2019). Meso-scale modelling of stress effect on chloride diffusion in concrete using three-phase composite sphere model. Materials and Structures, 52(3), 1-23. https://doi.org/10.1617/s11527-019-1355-8
Wang, J., Su, H., & Du, J. (2018). Influence of coupled effects between flexural tensile stress and carbonation time on the carbonation depth of concrete. Construction and Building Materials, 190, 439-451. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2018.09.117
Wang, M. (2012). Carbonation and chloride ion erosion test and theoretical analysis of steamed prestressed concrete (Dissertation). Central South University, China. https://doi.org/10.7666/d.y2197234
Wang, W., Lu, C., Li, Y., Yuan, G., & Li, Q. (2017). Effects of stress and high temperature on the carbonation resistance of fly ash concrete. Construction and Building Materials, 138, 486-495. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2017.02.039
Wang, Y. B. (2018). Research on carbonization of concrete box girder under bending load (Dissertation). Lanzhou Jiaotong University, China.
Wu, Y. X. (2009). Test of carbonation and chloride ion erosion of prestressed concrete members (Dissertation). Tongji University, China.
Xu, J., & Li, F. M. (2017). A meso-scale model for analyzing the chloride diffusion of concrete subjected to external stress. Construction and Building Materials, 130, 11-21. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2016.11.054
Xue, L. (2016). Study on concrete carbonation under different stress states. Highways and Transportation in Inner Mongolia, 5, 32-34. https://doi.org/10.19332/j.cnki.10050574.2016.05.009
Yang, L. D., Pan, H. K., Zhu, Y. Z., & Wu, Z. Z. (2008). Experimental study of concrete’s carbonation resistance under combined action of factors. Journal of Building Materials, 11(3), 345-348. https://doi.org/10.3969/j.issn.1007-9629.2008.03.017
Zhang, D. F. (2001). Research on the durability of modern prestressed concrete structures (Dissertation). Southeast University, China.
Zhang, P., Wang, S., Han, J., & Liu, W. (2017). Carbonation resistance and microstructure evolution of concrete under static load test. Concrete, 10, 45-51. https://doi.org/10.3969/j.issn.1002-3550.2017.10.012
Zhang, Y. S., Sun, W., Chen, S., Guo, F., & Zhao, Q. (2007). 1D and 2D carbonation of fly ash concrete under flexural stress. Journal of Southeast University (Natural Science Edition), 37(1), 118-122. https://doi.org/10.3321/j.issn:1001-0505.2007.01.025
Zheng, J. L., & Huang, L. P. (2013). Experimental study on carbonation of self-compacting concrete under tensile and compressive stresses. Journal of Building Materials, 16(1), 115-120. https://doi.org/10.3969/j.issn.1007-9629.2013.01.022
Zhou, S. B. (2011). Study on experiment for the influence of environmental factors and bending load on anti-corrosion performance of concrete (Dissertation). Zhejiang University of Technology, China. https://doi.org/10.7666/d.y2068743
Zhou, Y., Gencturk, B., Willam, K., & Attar, A. (2015). Carbonation-induced and chloride-induced corrosion in reinforced concrete structures. Journal of Materials in Civil Engineering, 27(9), 04014245. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)MT.1943-5533.0001209