Progress in urban greenery mitigation science – assessment methodologies advanced technologies and impact on cities
Abstract
Urban greenery is a natural solution to cool cities and provide comfort, clean air and significant social, health and economic benefits. This paper aims to present the latest progress on the field of greenery urban mitigation techniques including aspects related to the theoretical and experimental assessment of the greenery cooling potential, the impact on urban vegetation on energy, health and comfort and the acquired knowledge on the best integration of the various types of greenery in the urban frame. Also to present the recent knowledge on the impact of climate change on the cooling performance of urban vegetation and investigate and analyse possible technological solutions to face the impact of high ambient temperatures.
Keyword : urban heat island, climate change, cooling cities, urban greenery, mitigation and adaptation, trees and forests, green roofs, vertical greening
How to Cite
Santamouris, M., Ban-Weiss, G., Osmond, P., Paolini, R., Synnefa, A., Cartalis, C., Muscio, A., Zinzi, M., Morakinyo, T. E., Ng, E., Tan, Z., Takebayashi, H., Sailor, D., Crank, P., Taha, H., Pisello, A. L., Rossi, F., Zhang, J., & Kolokotsa, D. (2018). Progress in urban greenery mitigation science – assessment methodologies advanced technologies and impact on cities. Journal of Civil Engineering and Management, 24(8), 638-671. https://doi.org/10.3846/jcem.2018.6604
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
References
Akbari, H.; Cartalis, C.; Kolokotsa, D.; Muscio, A.; Pisello, A. L.; Rossi, F.; Santamouris, M.; Synnefa, A.; Wong, N. H.; Zinzi, M. 2016. Local climate change and urban heat island mitigation techniques – The state of the art, Journal of Civil Engineering and Management 22(1): 1–16. https://doi.org/10.3846/13923730.2015.1111934
Akbari, H.; Davis, S.; Dorsano, S.; Huang, J.; Winnett, S. 1992. Cooling our communities. A guidebook on tree planting and light-colored surfacing. US Environmental Protection Agency, USA.
Akbari, H.; Huang, J.; Martien, P.; Rainer, L.; Rosenfeld, A.; Taha, H. 1989. Saving energy and reducing atmospheric pollution by controlling summer heat islands, in K. Garbesi, H. Akbari, P. Martien (Eds.). Controlling summer heat islands. Berkeley, California: Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory.
Akbari, H.; Konopacki, S. 2004. Energy effects of heat-island reduction strategies in Toronto, Canada, Energy 29(2): 191–210. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2003.09.004
Akbari, H.; Konopacki, S. 2005. Calculating energy-saving potentials of heat-island reduction strategies, Energy Policy 33(6): 721–756. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enpol.2003.10.001
Akbari, H.; Pomerantz, M.; Taha, H. 2001. Cool surfaces and shade trees to reduce energy use and improve air quality in urban areas, Solar Energy 70(3): 295–310. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0038-092X(00)00089-X
Alcamo, J. 2003. Ecosystems and human well-being: a framework for assessment. Washington: Island Press.
Alcazar, S. S.; Olivieri, F.; Neila, J. 2015. Green roofs: Experimental and analytical study of its potential for urban microclimate regulation in Mediterranean-continental climates, Urban Climate 17: 304–317. http://doi.org/10.1016/j.uclim.2016.02.004
Alexandri, E.; Jones, P. 2008. Temperature decreases in an urban canyon due to green walls and green roofs in diverse climates, Building and Environment 43(4): 480–493. http://doi.org/10.1016/j.buildenv.2006.10.055
Allen, C. D.; Macalady, A. K.; Chenchouni, H.; Bachelet, D.; McDowell, N.; Vennetier, M.; Kitzbergerg, T.; Rigling, A.; Breshears, D. D.; (Ted) Hogg, E. H.; Gonzalez, P.; Fensham, R.; Zhang, Z.; Castro, J.; Demidova, N.; Li, J.-H.; Allard, G.; Running, S. W.; Semerci, A.; Cobb, N. 2010. A global overview of drought and heat induced tree mortality reveals emerging climate change risks for forests, Forest Ecology and Management 259: 660–684. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foreco.2009.09.001
Ameen, R. F. M.; Mourshed, M.; Li, H. 2015. A critical review of environmental assessment tools for sustainable urban design, Environmental Impact Assessment Review 55: 110–125. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eiar.2015.07.006
Ameye, M.; Wertin, T. M.; Bauweraerts, I.; McGuire, M. A.; Teskey, R. O.; Steppe, K. 2012. The effect of induced heat waves on Pinus taeda and Quercus rubra seedlings in ambient and elevated CO2 atmospheres, The New Phytologist 196: 448–461. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-8137.2012.04267.x
Anderegg, W. R. L.; Berry, J. A.; Field, C. B. 2012. Linking definitions, mechanisms, and modeling of drought-induced tree death, Trends in Plant Science 17: 693–700. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tplants.2012.09.006
Arbor Day Foundation. 2016. The right tree for the right place. Tree City USA.
ASTM C1371-15 Standard test method for determination of emittance of materials near room temperature using portable emissometers. ASTM International, 2015. https://doi.org/10.1520/C1371-15
ASTM C1549-16 Standard test method for determination of solar reflectance near ambient temperature using a portable solar reflectometer. ASTM International, 2016. https://doi.org/10.1520/C1549-16
ASTM E1918-16 Standard test method for measuring solar reflectance of horizontal and low-sloped surfaces in the field. ASTM International, 2016. https://doi.org/10.1520/E1918-16
ASTM E903-12 Standard test method for solar absorptance, reflectance, and transmittance of materials using integrating spheres. ASTM International, 2012. https://doi.org/10.1520/E0903-12
Ayanu, Y. Z.; Conrad, C.; Nauss, M.; Wegmann, M.; Koellner, T. 2012. Quantifying and mapping ecosystem services supplies and demands: a review of remote sensing applications, Environmental Science Technology 46: 8529–8541. https://doi.org/10.1021/es300157u
Bacci, L.; Morabito, M.; Raschi, A.; Ugolini, F. 2003. Thermohygrometric conditions of some urban parks of Florence (Italy) and their effect on human wellbeing, in Proceedings of the “Fifth International Conference on Urban Climate”, 1–5 September 2003, Lodz, Poland.
Ball, J.; Woodrow, I.; Berry, J. A. 1987. A model predicting stomatal conductance and its contribution to the control of photosynthesis under different environmental conditions, in Progress in Photosynthesis Research, Proceedings of the VIIth International Congress on Photosynthesis Providence, 10–15 August 1987, Rhode Island, USA, 221–224. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-017-0519-6_48
Ban, Y.; Hu, H.; Rangel, I. 2010. Fusion of QuickBird MS and RADARSAT SAR data for urban land-cover mapping: object-based and knowledge based approach, International Journal of Remote Sensing 31: 1391–1410. https://doi.org/10.1080/01431160903475415
Bartesaghi Koc, C.; Osmond, P.; Peters, A. 2017. Towards a comprehensive green infrastructure typology: a systematic review of approaches, methods and typologies, Urban Ecosystems 20(1): 15–35. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11252-016-0578-5
Barton, J.; Pretty, J. 2010. What is the best dose of nature and green exercise for improving mental health – A multi-study analysis, Environmental Science & Technology 44: 3947–3955. https://doi.org/10.1021/es903183r
Baumgardner, D.; Varela, S.; Escobedo, F. J.; Chacalo, A.; Ochoa, C. 2012. The role of a peri-urban forest on air quality improvement in the Mexico City megalópolis, Environmental Pollution 163: 174–183. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2011.12.016
Bauweraerts, I.; Wertin, T. M.; Ameye, M.; McGuire, M. A.; Teskey, R. O.; Steppe, K. 2013. The effect of heat waves, elevated [CO2] and low soil water availability on northern red oak (Quercus rubra L.) seedlings, Global Change Biology 19: 517–528. https://doi.org/10.1111/gcb.12044
Beatty, R. A. 1989. Planting guidelines for heat island mitigation and energy conservation, in Controlling Summer Heat Islands, Proceedings of the Workshop on Saving Energy and Reducing Atmospheric Pollution by Controlling Summer Heat Islands, 23–24 February, Berkeley, California, USA.
Belussi, L.; Barozzi, B. 2015. Mitigation measures to contain the environmental impact of urban areas: a bibliographic review moving from the life cycle approach, Environmental Monitoring and Assessment 187(12): 745. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-015-4960-1
Benjamin, M. T.; Winer, A. M. 1998. Estimating the ozone-forming potential of urban trees and shrubs, Atmospheric Environment 32: 53–68. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1352-2310(97)00176-3
Berardi, U. 2013. Sustainability assessment of urban communities through rating systems, Environment, Development and Sustainability 15(6): 1573–1591. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10668-013-9462-0
Berardi, U. 2016. The outdoor microclimate benefits and energy saving resulting from green roofs retrofits, Energy and Buildings 121: 217–229. http://doi.org/10.1016/j.enbuild.2016.03.021
Bernard, J.; Rodler, A.; Morille, B.; Zhang, X. 2018. How to design a park and its surrounding urban morphology to optimize the spreading of cool air, Climate 60: 10. https://doi.org/10.3390/cli6010010
Berndtsson, J. C. 2010. Green roof performance towards management of runoff water quantity and quality: A review, Ecological Engineering 36(4): 351–360. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoleng.2009.12.014
Besir, A. B.; Cuce, E. 2018. Green roofs and facades: A comprehensive review, Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 82(Part 1): 915–939. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2017.09.106
Bevilacqua, P.; Coma, J.; Pérez, G.; Chocarro, C.; Juárez, A.; Solé, C.; Solé, C.; De Simone, M.; Cabeza, L. F. 2015. Plant cover and floristic composition effect on thermal behaviour of extensive green roofs, Building and Environment 92: 305–316. http://doi.org/10.1016/j.buildenv.2015.04.026
Bigras, F. J. 2000. Selection of white spruce families in the context of climate change: Heat tolerance, Tree Physiology 20(18): 1227–1234. https://doi.org/10.1093/treephys/20.18.1227
Bita, C. E.; Gerats, T. 2013. Plant tolerance to high temperature in a changing environment: scientific fundamentals and production of heat stress-tolerant crops, Frontiers in Plant Science 4: 273. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpls.2013.00273
Blanusa, T.; Vaz Monteiro, M.; Fantozzi, F.; Vysini, E.; Li, Y.; Cameron, R. W. F. 2013. Alternatives to Sedum on green roofs: Can broad leaf perennial plants offer better ‘cooling service’?, Building and Environment 59: 99–106. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.buildenv.2012.08.011
Bork, E.; Su, J. 2007. Integrating LIDAR data and multispectral imagery for enhanced classification of rangeland vegetation: A meta-analysis, Remote Sensing of Environment 111: 11–24. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rse.2007.03.011
Bowler, D. E.; Buyung-Ali, L.; Knight, T. M.; Pullin, A. S. 2010. Urban greening to cool towns and cities: A systematic review of the empirical evidence, Landscape and Urban Planning 97(3): 147–155. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landurbplan.2010.05.006
Brazel, A. P.; Gober, S. J.; Lee, S.; Grossman-Clarke, J.; Hedquist, Z. B.; Comparri, E. 2007. Determinants of changes in the regional urban heat island in metropolitan Phoenix between 1990 and 2004, Climate Research 33: 171–182. https://doi.org/10.3354/cr033171
Broadbent, A. M.; Coutts, A. M.; Tapper, N. J.; Demuzere, M. 2018. The cooling effect of irrigation on urban microclimate during heatwave conditions, Urban Climate 23: 309–329. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.uclim.2017.05.002
Buccolieri, R.; Gromke, C.; Di Sabatino, S.; Ruck, B. 2009. Aerodynamic effects of trees on pollutant concentration in street canyons, Science of the Total Environment 407: 5247–5256. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2009.06.016
Ca, V. T.; Asaeda, T.; Abu, E. M. 1998. Reductions in air conditioning energy caused by a nearby park, Energy and Buildings 29: 83–92. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0378-7788(98)00032-2
Cairns, J. E.; Crossa, J.; Zaidi, P. H.; Grudloyma, P.; Sanchez, C.; Luis Araus, J.; Thaitad, S.; Makumbi, D.; Magorokosho, C.; Bänziger, M.; Menkir, A.; Hearne, S.; Atlin, G. N. 2013. Identification of drought, heat, and combined drought and heat tolerant donors in maize, Crop Science 53(4): 1335–1346. https://doi.org/10.2135/cropsci2012.09.0545
Cao, C. T. N.; Farrell, C.; Kristiansen, P. E.; Rayner, J. P. 2014. Biochar makes green roof substrates lighter and improves water supply to plants, Ecological Engineering 71: 368–374. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoleng.2014.06.017
Cao, Q.; Yu, D.; Georgescu, M.; Han, Z.; Wu, J. 2015. Impacts of land use and land cover change on regional climate: A case study in the agro-pastoral transitional zone of China, Environmental Research Letters 10(12). https://doi.org/10.1088/1748-9326/10/12/124025
Cao, X.; Onishi, A.; Chena, J.; Imura, H. 2010. Quantifying the cool island intensity of urban parks using ASTER and IKONOS data, Landscape Urban Planning 96: 224–231. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landurbplan.2010.03.008
Cartalis, C. 2017. Prerequisites for nature based solutions in cities, in European Forum on Nature Based Solutions, October 2017, Tallinn, Estonia.
Cartalis, C.; Santamouris, M.; Polydoros, A.; Nyktarakis, G.; Mavrakou, T. 2016. Assessing the interlinks between urbanization, the built environment and the thermal environment in view of smart and sustainable urban development: a demonstration application for Athens, International Journal of Earth and Environmental Sciences 1. Article ID 1:IJEES-107. https://doi.org/10.15344/2456-351X/2016/107
Castaldo, V. L.; Pisello, A. L.; Piselli, C.; Fabiani, C.; Cotana, F.; Santamouris, M. 2018. How outdoor microclimate mitigation affects building thermal-energy performance: A new design-stage method for energy saving in residential near-zero energy settlements in Italy, Renewable Energy 127: 920–935. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.renene.2018.04.090
Chang, C. R.; Li, M. H.; Chang, S. D. 2007. A preliminary study on the local cool-island intensity of Taipei city parks, Landscape and Urban Planning 80(4): 386–395.
Chang, C.-R.; Li, M.-H. 2014. Effects of urban parks on the local urban thermal environment, Urban Forestry and Urban Greening 13(4): 672–681. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ufug.2014.08.001
Chen, C. F. 2013. Performance evaluation and development strategies for green roofs in Taiwan: A review, Ecological Engineering 52: 51–58. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoleng.2012.12.083
Chen, F.; Kusaka, H.; Bornstein, R.; Ching, J.; Grimmond, C. S. B.; Grossman-Clarke, S.; Loridan, T.; Manning, K. W.; Martilli, A.; Miao, S.; Sailor, D.; Salamanca, F. P.; Taha, H.; Tewari, M.; Wang, X.; Wyszogrodzki, A. A.; Zhang, C. 2011. The integrated WRF/urban modelling system: development, evaluation, and applications to urban environmental problems, International Journal of Climatology 31: 273–288. https://doi.org/10.1002/joc.2158
Chen, X.; Su, Y.; Li, D.; Huang, G.; Chen, W.; Chen, S. 2012. Study on the cooling effects of urban parks on surrounding environments using Landsat TM data: a case study in Guangzhou, southern China, International Journal of Remote Sensing 33(18): 5889–5914. https://doi.org/10.1080/01431161.2012.676743
Cheng, C. Y.; Cheung, K. K. S.; Chu, L. M. 2010. Thermal performance of a vegetated cladding system on facade walls, Building and Environment 45(8): 1779–1787. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.buildenv.2010.02.005
Churkina, G.; Kuik, F.; Bonn, B.; Lauer, A.; Grote, R.; Tomiak, K.; Butler, T. M. 2017. Effect of VOC emissions from vegetation on air quality in Berlin during a heat wave, Environmental Science & Technology 51: 6120–6130. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.est.6b06514
Clark, J.; Kjelgren, R. 1990. Water as a limiting factor in the development of urban trees, Journal of Arboriculture 16(8): 203–208.
Cole, R. J. 1998. Emerging trends in building environmental assessment methods, Building Research & Information 26(1): 3–16. https://doi.org/10.1080/096132198370065
Cole, R. J. 2005. Building environmental assessment methods: redefining intentions and roles, Building Research & Information 33(5): 455–467. https://doi.org/10.1080/09613210500219063
Coleman, R. F.; Drake, J. F.; McAtee, M. D.; Belsma, L. O. 2010. Anthropogenic moisture effects on WRF summertime surface temperature and mixing ratio forecast skills in Southern California, Weather and Forecasting 25(5): 1522–1535. https://doi.org/10.1175/2010WAF2222384.1
Colombo, S. J.; Timmer, V. R. 1992. Limits of tolerance to high temperatures causing direct and indirect damage to black spruce, Tree Physiology 11: 95–104. https://doi.org/10.1093/treephys/11.1.95
Colombo, S.; Timmer, V.; Colclough, M.; Blumwald, E. 1995. Diurnal variation in heat tolerance and heat shock protein expression in black spruce (Piceamariana), Canadian Journal of Forest Research 25(3): 369–375. https://doi.org/10.1139/x95-041
Copernicus. 2018. Urban atlas [online]. Available from Internet: https://land.copernicus.eu/local/urban-atlas/street-tree-layer-stl/view
Cowan, T.; Purich, A.; Perkins, S.; Pezza, A.; Boschat, G.; Sadler, K. 2014. More frequent, longer, and hotter heat waves for Australia in the twenty-first century, Journal of Climate 27: 5851–5871. https://doi.org/10.1175/JCLI-D-14-00092.1
Currie, B. A.; Bass, B. 2008. Estimates of air pollution mitigation with green plants and green roofs using the UFORE model, Urban Ecosystems 11: 409–422. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11252-008-0054-y
Curtis, E. M.; Leigh, A.; Rayburg, S. 2012. Relationships among leaf traits of Australian arid zone plants: alternative modes of thermal protection, Australian Journal of Botany 60: 471–483. https://doi.org/10.1071/BT11284
Dahanayake, K. C.; Chow, C. L.; Long Hou, G. 2017. Selection of suitable plant species for energy efficient Vertical Greenery Systems (VGS), Energy Procedia 142: 2473–2478. http://doi.org/10.1016/j.egypro.2017.12.185
de Abreu-Harbich, L. V.; Labaki, L. C.; Matzarakis, A. 2015. Effect of tree planting design and tree species on human thermal comfort in the tropics, Landscape and Urban Planning 138: 99–109. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.LANDURBPLAN.2015.02.008
de Dear, R.; Kim, J. 2016. Thermal comfort inside and outside buildings, in Y. Tamura, R. Yoshie (Eds.). Advanced environmental wind engineering. Springer, 89–99.
De Jesus, M. P.; Lourenço, J. M.; Arce, R. M.; Macias, M. 2017. Green façades and in situ measurements of outdoor building thermal behaviour, Building and Environment 119: 11–19. http://doi.org/10.1016/j.buildenv.2017.03.041
Deak Sjöman, J. 2016. The hidden landscape: On fine-scale green structure and its role in regulating ecosystem services in the urban environment, Acta Universitatis Agriculturae Sueciae 3.
Declet-Barreto, J.; Brazel, A. J.; Martin, C. A.; Chow, W. T. L.; Harlan, S. L. 2013. Creating the park cool island in an inner-city neighborhood: heat mitigation strategy for Phoenix, AZ, Urban Ecosystems 16(3): 617–635. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11252-012-0278-8
Dennis, M.; Barlow, D.; Cavan, G.; Cook, P.; Gilchrist, A.; Handley, J.; James, P.; Thompson, J.; Tzoulas, K.; Wheater, P.; Lindley, S. 2018. Mapping urban green infrastructure: A novel landscape-based approach to incorporating land use and land cover in the mapping of human-dominated systems, Land 7: 17–25. https://doi.org/10.3390/land7010017
Dimoudi, A.; Nikolopoulou, M. 2003. Vegetation in the urban environment: microclimatic analysis and benefits, Energy and Buildings 35: 69–76. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0378-7788(02)00081-6
Ding, G. K. 2008. Sustainable construction – The role of environmental assessment tools, Journal of Environmental Management 86(3): 451–464. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2006.12.025
Doick, K. J.; Peace, A.; Hutchings, T. R. 2014. The role of one large greenspace in mitigating London’s nocturnal urban heat island, Science of the Total Environment 493: 662–671. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2014.06.048
Doick, K.; Hutchings, T. 2013. Air temperature regulation by urban trees and green infrastructure. Forestry Commission, UK.
Dooling, S. 2009. Ecological gentrification: A Research agenda exploring justice in the city, International Journal of Urban and Regional Research 33: 621–639. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-2427.2009.00860.x
Drake, J. E.; Tjoelker, M. G.; Vårhammar, A.; Medlyn, B. E.; Reich, P. B.; Leigh, A.; Pfautsch, S.; Blackman, C. J.; López, R.; Aspinwall, M. J.; Crous, K. Y.; Duursma, R. A.; Kumarathunge, D.; De Kauwe, M. G.; Jiang, M.; Nicotra, A. B.; Tissue, D. T.; Choat, B.; Atkin, O. K.; Barton, C. V. M. 2018. Trees tolerate an extreme heatwave via sustained transpirational cooling and increased leaf thermal tolerance, Global Change Biology 24(6): 2390–2402. https://doi.org/10.1111/gcb.14037
Du, H.; Cai, W.; Xu, Y.; Wang, Z.; Wang, Y.; Cai, Y. 2017. Quantifying the cool island effects of urban green spaces using remote sensing data, Urban Forestry & Urban Greening 27: 24–31. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ufug.2017.06.008
Ehleringer, J. R.; Mooney, H. A. 1978. Leaf hairs: Effects on physiological activity and adaptive value to a desert shrub, Oecologia 37: 183–200. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00344990
Eisenman, T. S. 2013. Frederick Law Olmsted, green infrastructure, and the evolving city, Journal of Planning History 12: 287–311. https://doi.org/10.1177/1538513212474227
Ellis, K. N.; Hathaway, L.; Mason, R.; Howe, D. A.; Epps, T. H.; Brown, V. M. 2017. Summer temperature variability across four urban neighborhoods in Knoxville, Tennessee, USA, Theoretical and Applied Climatology 127(3–4): 701–710. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00704-015-1659-8
EN 15976:2011 Flexible sheets for waterproofing – Determination of emissivity. European Committee for Standardization (CEN), 2011.
Erell, E.; Pearlmutter, D.; Williamson, T. 2012. Urban microclimate: designing the spaces between buildings. Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781849775397
Essa, W.; Verbeiren, B.; van der Kwast, J.; Batelaan, O. 2013. Downscaling of thermal images over urban areas using the land surface temperature – Impervious percentage relationship, International Journal of Applied Earth Observation 23: 95–108. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jag.2012.12.007
Essa, W.; Verbeiren, B.; van der Kwast, J.; Batelaan, O. 2017. Improved DisTrad for downscaling thermal MODIS imagery over urban areas, Remote Sensing 8: 1243–1250. https://doi.org/10.3390/rs9121243
Feldhake, C. M. 2001. Microclimate of a natural pasture under planted Robinia pseudoacacia in central Appalachia, West Virginia, Agroforestry Systems 53(3): 297–303. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1013331628494
FLL. 2008. Guidelines for the planning, construction and maintenance of green roofing. Bonn: Forschungsgesellschaft Landschaftsentwicklung Landschaftsbau e.V. (FLL).
Forster, M.; Englefield, A. 2018. Can soils assist grapevines in coping with heatwaves?, Soil Science Australia 186.
Founta, D.; Santamouris, M. 2017. Synergies between Urban Heat Island and Heat Waves in Athens (Greece), during an extremely hot summer, Scientific Reports – Nature 7. Article number 10973.
Frankenstein, S.; Koenig, G. 2004. FASST vegetation models. Technical Report TR-04-25U.S. Army Engineer Research and Development Center, Cold Regions Research and Engineering Laboratory (ERDC/CRREL).
Frumkin, H. 2003. Healthy places: Exploring the evidence, American Journal of Public Health 93: 1451–1456. https://doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.93.9.1451
Gehrels, H.; van der Meulen, S.; Schasfoort, F.; Bosch, P.; Brolsma, R.; van Dinther, D.; Geerling, G.; Goossens, M.; Jacobs, C.; Kok, S. 2016. Designing green and blue infrastructure to support healthy urban living. TO2 Federatie.
Georgescu, M. 2015. Challenges associated with adaptation to future expansion, Journal of Climate 31: 2544–2563. https://doi.org/10.1175/JCLI-D-14-00290.1
Georgescu, M.; Moustaoui, M.; Mahalov, A.; Dudhia, J. 2011. An alternative explanation of the semiarid urban area “oasis effect”, Journal of Geophysical Research Atmospheres 116(24): 1–13. https://doi.org/10.1029/2011JD016720
Ghirardo, A.; Xie, J.; Zheng, X.; Wang, Y.; Grote, R.; Block, K.; Wildt, J.; Mentel, T.; Kiendler-Scharr, A.; Hallquist, M.; Butterbach-Bahl, K.; Schnitzler, J.-P. 2016. Urban stress-induced biogenic VOC emissions and SOA-forming potentials in Beijing, Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics 16: 2901–2920. https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-16-2901-2016
Ghobadi, A.; Khosravi, M.; Tavousi, T. 2018. Surveying of heat waves impact on the urban heat islands: Case study, the Karaj City in Iran, Urban Climate 24: 600–615. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.uclim.2017.12.004
Gill, S. E.; Handley, J. F.; Ennos, A. R.; Pauleit, S. 2007. Adapting cities for climate change: The role of the green infrastructure, Built Environment 33(1): 115–133. https://doi.org/10.2148/benv.33.1.115
GLTMS. 2015. Appendix 8 – Right tree right place quick reference guide. Development Bureau, HKSAR.
Grimmond, C. S. B.; Blackett, M.; Best, M. J.; Baik, J.-J.; Belcher, S. E.; Beringer, J.; Bohnenstengel, S. I.; Calmet, I.; Chen, F.; Coutts, A.; Dandou, A.; Fortuniak, K.; Gouvea, M. L.; Hamdi, R.; Hendry, M.; Kanda, M.; Kawai, T.; Kawamoto, Y.; Kondo, H.; Krayenhoff, E. S.; Lee, S.-H.; Loridan, T., Martilli, A.; Masson, V.; Miao, S.; Oleson, K.; Ooka, R.; Pigeon, G.; Porson, A.; Ryu, Y.-H.; Salamanca, F.; Steeneveld, G. J.; Tombrou, M.; Voogt, J. A.; Young, D. T.; Zhang, N. 2011. Initial results from Phase 2 of the international urban energy balance model comparison, International Journal of Climatology 31(2): 244–272. https://doi.org/10.1002/joc.2227
Grimmond, C. S. B.; Blackett, M.; Best, M. J.; Barlow, J.; Baik, J.-J.; Belcher, S. E.; Bohnenstengel, S. I.; Calmet, I.; Chen, F.; Dandou, A.; Fortuniak, K.; Gouvea, M. L.; Hamdi, R.; Hendry, M.; Kawai, T.; Kawamoto, Y.; Kondo, H.; Krayenhoff, E. S.; Lee, S.-H.; Loridan, T.; Martilli, A.; Masson, V.; Miao, S.; Oleson, K.; Pigeon, G.; Porson, A.; Ryu, Y.-H.; Salamanca, F.; Shashua-Bar, L.; Steeneveld, G.-J.; Tombrou, M.; Voogt, J.; Young, D.; Zhang, N. 2010. The international urban energy balance models comparison project: First results from phase 1, Journal of Applied Meteorology and Climatology 49: 1268–1292. https://doi.org/10.1175/2010JAMC2354.1
Grimmond, C. S. B.; Souch, C.; Hubble, M. D. 1996. Influence of tree cover on summertime surface energy balance fluxes, San Gabriel Valley, Los Angeles, Climate Research 6(1): 45–57. https://doi.org/10.3354/cr006045
Gromke, C. 2011. A vegetation modeling concept for Building and Environmental Aerodynamics wind tunnel tests and its application in pollutant dispersion studies, Environmental Pollution 159: 2094–2099. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2010.11.012
Gromke, C.; Blocken, B. 2014. Influence of avenue-trees on air quality at the urban neighborhood scale. Part I: Quality assurance studies and turbulent Schmidt number analysis for RANS CFD simulations, Environmental Pollution 196: 214–223. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2014.10.016
Grover, A.; Singh, R. B. 2015. Analysis of Urban Heat Island (UHI) in relation to Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI): A comparative study of Delhi and Mumbai, Environments 2: 125–138. https://doi.org/10.3390/environments2020125
Guenther, A. B.; Zimmerman, P. R.; Harley, P. C.; Monson, R. K.; Fall, R. 1993. Isoprene and monoterpene emission rate variability – model evaluations and sensitivity analyses, Journal of Geophysical Research 98: 12609–12617. https://doi.org/10.1029/93JD00527
Guenther, A.; Wiedinmyer, C. 2004. User’s guide to the Model of Emissions of Gases and Aerosols from Nature (MEGAN) [online], [cited 01 July 2018]. Available from Internet: http://acd.ucar.edu
Guha, A.; Han, J.; Cummings, C.; McLennan, D. A.; Warren, J. M. 2018. Differential ecophysiological responses and resilience to heat wave events in four co-occurring temperate tree species, Environmental Research Letters 13(6). https://doi.org/10.1088/1748-9326/aabcd8
Gülten, A.; Aksoy, U. T.; Öztop, H. F. 2016. Influence of trees on heat island potential in an urban canyon, Sustainable Cities and Society 26: 407–418. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.SCS.2016.04.006
Gulyás, A.; Unger, J.; Matzarakis, A. 2006. Assessment of the microclimatic and human comfort conditions in a complex urban environment: Modelling and measurements, Building and Environment 41: 1713–1722. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.buildenv.2005.07.001
Haapio, A.; Viitaniemi, P. 2008. A critical review of building environmental assessment tools, Environmental Impact Assessment Review 28(7): 469–482. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eiar.2008.01.002
Haas, J.; Ban, Y. 2017. Sentinel-1A SAR and sentinel-2A MSI data fusion for urban ecosystem mapping, Remote Sensing Applications: Society and Environment 8: 41–53. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rsase.2017.07.006
Haas, J.; Ban, Y. 2018. Urban land cover and ecosystem service changes based on Sentinel-2A MSI and Landsat TM Data, IEEE Journal of Selected Topics in Applied Earth Observations and Remote Sensing 11: 485–497. https://doi.org/10.1109/JSTARS.2017.2786468
Haldimann, P.; Galle, A.; Feller, U. 2008. Impact of an exceptionally hot dry summer on photosynthetic traits in oak (Quercus pubescens) leaves, Tree Physiology 28: 785–795. https://doi.org/10.1093/treephys/28.5.785
Hamada, S.; Ohta, T. 2010. Seasonal variations in the cooling effect of urban green areas on surrounding urban areas, Urban Forestry & Urban Greening 9: 15–24. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ufug.2009.10.002
Hamedani, A. Z.; Huber, F. 2012. A comparative study of DGNB, LEED and BREEAM certificate systems in urban sustainability, WIT Transactions on Ecology and The Environment 155: 1121–132. https://doi.org/10.2495/SC120111
Harfouche, A.; Meilan, R.; Altman, A. 2011. Tree genetic engineering and applications to sustainable forestry and biomass production, Trends in Biotechnology 29(1): 9–17. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tibtech.2010.09.003
Harrison, S. P.; Morfopoulos, C.; Dani, K. G. S.; Prentice, I. C.; Arneth, A.; Atwell, B. J.; Barkley, M. P.; Leishman, M. R.; Loreto, F.; Medlyn, B. E.; Niinemets, Ü.; Possell, M.; Peñuelas, J.; Wright, I. J. 2013. Volatile isoprenoid emissions from plastid to planet, New Phytologist 197: 49–57. https://doi.org/10.1111/nph.12021
Heisler, G. M. 1990. Mean wind speed below building height in residential neighborhoods with different tree densities, ASHRAE Transactions 96(1): 1389–1396.
Heisler, G. M.; Dewalle, D. R. 1988. 2. Effects of windbreak structure on wind flow, Agriculture, Ecosystems & Environment 22–23: 41–69. https://doi.org/10.1016/0167-8809(88)90007-2
Hoelscher, M.; Nehls, T.; Jänicke, B.; Wessolek, G. 2016. Quantifying cooling effects of facade greening: Shading, transpiration and insulation, Energy and Buildings 114: 283–290. http://doi.org/10.1016/j.enbuild.2015.06.047
Honjo, T.; Takakura, T. 1990–1991. Simulation of thermal effects of urban green areas on their surrounding areas, Energy and Buildings 15(3–4): 443–446. https://doi.org/10.1016/0378-7788(90)90019-F
Howard, E. 1898. Garden cities of tomorrow. London: General Books LLC.
Howe, D. A.; Hathaway, J. M.; Ellis, K. N.; Mason, L. R. 2017. Spatial and temporal variability of air temperature across urban neighborhoods with varying amounts of tree canopy, Urban Forestry & Urban Greening 27: 109–116. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ufug.2017.07.001
Huang, J.; Davis, S.; Akbari, H. 1990. A guidebook for the control of summer heat islands. Berkeley, California: Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory.
Hui, S. C. 2010. Development of technical guidelines for green roof systems in Hong Kong, in Proceedings of the Joint Symposium 2010 on Low Carbon High Performance Buildings.
Huo, X.; Ann, T. W.; Wu, Z. 2018. An empirical study of the variables affecting site planning and design in green buildings, Journal of Cleaner Production 175: 314–323. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2017.12.091
Jackson, L. E. 2003. The relationship of urban design to human health and condition, Landscape and Urban Planning 64(4): 191–200. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0169-2046(02)00230-X
Jänicke, B.; Meier, F.; Hoelscher, M.; Scherer, D. 2015. Evaluating the effects of façade greening on human bioclimate in a complex urban environment, Advances in Meteorology. Article ID 747259. https://doi.org/10.1155/2015/747259
Jayasooriya, V.; Ng, A.; Muthukumaran, S.; Perera, B. 2017. Green infrastructure practices for improvement of urban air quality, Urban Forestry & Urban Greening 21: 34–47. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ufug.2016.11.007
Jennings, V.; Larson, L.; Yun, J. 2016. Advancing sustainability through urban green space: Cultural ecosystem services, equity, and social determinants of health, Environmental Research and Public Health 13: 196. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph13020196
Jim, C. 2002. Planning strategies to overcome constraints on greenspace provision in urban Hong Kong, Town Planning Review 73(2): 127–152. https://doi.org/10.3828/tpr.73.2.1
Jim, C. Y. 2013. Sustainable urban greening strategies for compact cities in developing and developed economies, Urban Ecosystems 16: 741–761. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11252-012-0268-x
Jonsson, P. 2004. Vegetation as an urban climate control in the subtropical city of Gaborone, Botswana, International Journal of Climatology 24: 1307–1322. https://doi.org/10.1002/joc.1064
Kala, J.; De Kauwe, M. G.; Pitman, A. J.; Medlyn, B. E.; Wang, Y.-P.; Lorenz, R.; Perkins-Kirkpatrick, S. E. 2016. Impact of the representation of stomatal conductance on model projections of heatwave intensity, Scientific Reports – Nature 6: 23418. https://doi.org/10.1038/srep23418
Kalani, K. W. D.; Dahanayake, C.; Chow, C. L. 2016. Studying the potential of energy saving through vertical greenery systems: Using EnergyPlus simulation program, Energy and Buildings 138: 47–59. http://doi.org/10.1016/j.enbuild.2016.12.002
Kaloustian, N.; Aouad, D.; Battista, G.; Zinzi, M. 2018. Leftover spaces for the mitigation of urban overheating in municipal Beirut, Climate 6(3): 68. https://doi.org/10.3390/cli6030068
Kaplan, R.; Kaplan, S. 1989. The experience of nature: A psychological perspective. Cambridge, New York: Cambridge University Press.
Kato, T.; Yamada, T.; Hino, M. 2006. Spatial structure of air temperature and humidity in urban park forest and its surrounding, Journal of the Institute of Science and Engineering. Chuo University 12: 63–71.
Kent, C. W.; Grimmond, S.; Gatey, D. 2017a. Aerodynamic roughness parameters in cities: Inclusion of vegetation, Journal of Wind Engineering & Industrial Aerodynamics 169: 168–176. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jweia.2017.07.016
Kent, C. W.; Lee, K.; Ward, H. C.; Hong, J.-W.; Hong, J.; Gatey, D.; Grimmond, S. 2017b. Aerodynamic roughness variation with vegetation: analysis in a suburban neighbourhood and a city park, Urban Ecosystems 21: 227–243. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11252-017-0710-1
Kikegawa, Y.; Genchi, Y.; Kondo, H.; Hanaki, K. 2006. Impacts of city-block-scale countermeasures against urban heat-island phenomena upon a building’s energy-consumption for air-conditioning, Applied Energy 83(6): 649–668. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2005.06.001
Kim, J. H.; Gu, D.; Sohn, W.; Kil, S. H.; Kim, H.; Lee, D. K. 2016. Neighborhood landscape spatial patterns and land surface temperature. An empirical study on single family residential areas in Austin, Texas, International Journal for Environmental Research in Public Health 13: 880. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph13090880
Kolb, P. F.; Robberecht, R. 1996. High temperature and drought stress effects on survival of Pinus ponderosa seedlings, Tree Physiology 16: 665–672. https://doi.org/10.1093/treephys/16.8.665
Kong, F.; Sun, C.; Liu, F.; Yin, H.; Yingxia Pu, F. J.; Cavan, G.; Skelhorn, C.; Middel, A.; Dronova, I. 2016. Energy saving potential of fragmented green spaces due to their temperature regulating ecosystem services in the summer, Applied Energy 183: 1428–1440. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2016.09.070
Kong, L.; Lau, K. K.-L.; Yuan, C.; Chen, Y.; Xu, Y.; Ren, C.; Ng, E. 2017. Regulation of outdoor thermal comfort by trees in Hong Kong, Sustainable Cities and Society 31: 12–25. http://doi.org/10.1016/j.scs.2017.01.018
Konopacki, S.; Akbari, H. 2000. Energy savings calculations for heat-island reduction strategies in Baton Rouge, Sacramento, and Salt Lake City. Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory Report LBNL-42890, Berkeley, CA.
Konopacki, S.; Akbari, H. 2002. Energy savings for heat-island reduction strategies in Chicago and Houston (including updates for Baton Rouge, Sacramento, and Salt Lake City). Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory Report LBNL-94720, Berkeley, CA.
Koppenaal, R. S.; Colombo, S. J.; Blumwald, E. 1991. Acquired thermotolerance of jack pine, white spruce and black spruce seedlings, Tree Physiology 8(1): 83–91. https://doi.org/10.1093/treephys/8.1.83
Kosaka, E.; Iida, A.; Vanos, J.; Middel, A.; Yokohari, M.; Brown, R. 2018. Microclimate variation and estimated heat stress of runners in the 2020 Tokyo Olympic Marathon, Atmosphere 9: 192. https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos9050192
Kotthaus, S.; Grimmond, C. S. B. 2014. Energy exchange in a dense urban environment – Part I: Temporal variability of long-term observations in central London, Urban Climate 10: 261–280. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.uclim.2013.10.002
Krayenhoff, E. S.; Santiago, J.-L.; Martilli, A.; Christen, A.; Oke, T. R. 2015. Parametrization of drag and turbulence for urban neighbourhoods with trees, Boundary-Layer Meteorology 156: 157–189. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10546-015-0028-6
Kuo, F. E.; Sullivan, W. C. 2001. Aggression and violence in the inner city, Environment and Behavior 33: 543–571. https://doi.org/10.1177/00139160121973124
Kupper, P.; Sõber, J.; Sellin, A.; Lõhmus, K.; Tullus, A.; Räim, O.; Lubenets, K.; Tulva, I.; Uri, V.; Zobel, M.; Kull, O.; Sõber, A. 2011. An experimental facility for free air humidity manipulation (FAHM) can alter water flux through deciduous tree canopy, Environmental and Experimental Botany 72: 432–438. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envexpbot.2010.09.003
Kuras, E. R.; Richardson, M. B.; Calkins, M. M.; Ebi, K. L.; Hess, J. J.; Kintziger, K. W.; Jagger, M. A.; Middel, A.; Scott, A. A.; Spector, J. T.; Uejio, C. K.; Vanos, J. K.; Zaitchik, B. F.; Gohlke, J. M.; Hondula, D. M. 2017. Opportunities and challenges for personal heat exposure research, Environmental Health Perspectives 125(8): 085001. https://doi.org/10.1289/EHP556
Kustas, W.; Norman, J.; Anderson, M.; French, A. 2003. Estimating subpixel surface temperatures and energy fluxes from the vegetation index – Radiometric temperature relationship, Remote Sensing of Environment 85: 429–440. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0034-4257(03)00036-1
Kyriakodis, G.-E.; Santamouris, M. 2017. Using reflective pavements to mitigate urban heat island in warm climates – Results from a large scale urban mitigation project, Urban Climate 24: 326–339. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.uclim.2017.02.002
La Roche, P.; Berardi, U. 2014. Comfort and energy savings with active green roofs, Energy and Buildings 82: 492–504. http://doi.org/10.1016/j.enbuild.2014.07.055
Landsberg, H. 1970. Climatic consequences of urbanization, Journal of the Washington Academy of Sciences 60(3): 82–87.
Lang, S.; Blaschke, T.; Kothencz, G.; Holbling, D. 2018. Urban green mapping and valuation, in Q. Weng, D. Quattrochi, P. Gamba (Eds.). Urban remote sensing. Taylor and Francis Series in Satellite Remote Sensing. Taylor and Francis, 338.
Leuning, R. 1995. A critical-appraisal of a combined stomatal-photosynthesis model for C-3 plants, Plant Cell and Environment 18: 339–355. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-3040.1995.tb00370.x
Leuzinger, S.; Vogt, R.; Körner, C. 2010. Tree surface temperature in an urban environment, Agricultural and Forest Meteorology 150(1): 56–62. http://doi.org/10.1016/j.agrformet.2009.08.006
Li, W.; Radke, J.; Liu, D.; Gong, P. 2012. Measuring detailed urban vegetation with multisource high-resolution remote sensing imagery for environmental design and planning, Environmental Planning B: Planning and Design 39: 568–585. https://doi.org/10.1068/b37135
Li, X.; de Foy, B. 2012. Spatial pattern of greenspace affects land surface temperature: evidence from the heavily urbanized Beijing metropolitan area, China, Landscape Ecology 27: 887–898. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10980-012-9731-6
Lin, Y.-S.; Medlyn, B. E.; Duursma, R. A.; Prentice, I. C.; Wang, H.; Baig, S.; Eamus, D.; de Dios, V. R.; Mitchell, P.; Ellsworth, D. S.; de Beeck, M. O.; Wallin, G.; Uddling, J.; Tarvainen, L.; Linderson, M.-L.; Cernusak, L. A.; Nippert, J. B.; Ocheltree, T. W.; Tissue, D. T.; Martin-StPaul, N. K.; Rogers, A.; Warren, J. M.; De Angelis, P.; Hikosaka, K.; Han, Q.; Onoda, Y.; Gimeno, T. E.; Barton, C. V. M.; Bennie, J.; Bonal, D.; Bosc, A.; Löw, M.; Macinins-Ng, C.; Rey, A.; Rowland, L.; Setterfield, S. A.; Tausz-Posch, S.; Zaragoza-Castells, J.; Broadmeadow, M. S. J.; Drake, J. E.; Freeman, M.; Ghannoum, O.; Hutley, L. B.; Kelly, J. W.; Kikuzawa, K.; Kolari, P.; Koyama, K.; Limousin, J. M.; Meir, P.; da Costa, A. C. L.; Mikkelsen, T. N.; Salinas, N.; Sun, W.; Wingate, L. 2015. Optimal stomatal behaviour around the world, Nature Climate Change 5: 459–464. https://doi.org/10.1038/nclimate2550
Lontorfos, V.; Efthymiou, C.; Santamouris, M. 2018. On the time varying mitigation performance of reflective geoengineering technologies in cities, Renewable Energy 115: 926–930. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.renene.2017.09.033
Lorenz, R.; Davin, E. L.; Lawrence, D. M.; Stöckli, R.; Seneviratne, S. I. 2013. How important is vegetation phenology for European climate and heat waves?, Journal of Climate 26: 10077–10100. https://doi.org/10.1175/JCLI-D-13-00040.1
Lu, J.; Li, C.-D.; Yang, Y.-C.; Zhang, X.-H.; Jin, M. 2012. Quantitative evaluation of urban park cool island factors in mountain city, Journal of Central South University of Technology 19(6): 1657–1662. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11771-012-1189-9
Maes, J.; Barbosa, A.; Baranzelli, C.; Zulian, G.; Silva, F. B.; Vandecasteele, I.; Hiederer, R.; Liquete, C.; Paracchini, M. L.; Mubareka, S.; Jacobs-Crisioni, C.; Castillo, C. P.; Lavalle, C. 2014. More green infrastructure is required to maintain ecosystem services under current trends in land use change in Europe, Landscape Ecology 30: 517–534. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10980-014-0083-2
Manickathan, L.; Defraeye, T.; Allegrini, J.; Derome, D.; Carmeliet, J. 2018. Parametric study of the influence of environmental factors and tree properties on the transpirative cooling effect of trees, Agricultural and Forest Meteorology 248: 259–274. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agrformet.2017.10.014
Manso, M.; Castro-Gomes, J.; Paulo, B.; Bentes, I.; Teixeira, C. 2018. Life cycle analysis of a new modular greening system, Science of the Total Environment 627: 1146–1153. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2018.01.198
Mao, Y.; Nijssen, B.; Lettenmaier, D. P. 2015. Is climate change implicated in the 2013-2014 California drought? A hydrologic perspective, Geophysical Research Letters 42(8): 2805–2813. https://doi.org/10.1002/2015GL063456
Marando, F.; Slavatori, E.; Fusaro, L.; Manes, F. 2016. Removal of PM10 by forests as nature-based solution for air quality improvement in the Metropolitan City of Rome, Forests 7: 150. https://doi.org/10.3390/f7070150
March, D.; Hatch, S. L.; Morgan, C.; Kirkbride, J. B.; Bresnahan, M.; Fearon, P.; Susser, E. 2008. Psychosis and place, Epidemiologic Reviews 30: 84–100. https://doi.org/10.1093/epirev/mxn006
Mathieu, R.; Freeman, C.; Aryal, J. 2007. Mapping private gardens in urban areas using object oriented techniques and very high resolution satellite imagery, Landscape Urban Planning 81: 179–192. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landurbplan.2006.11.009
Mavrakou, T.; Polydoros, A.; Cartalis, C.; Santamouris, M. 2018. Recognition of thermal hot and cold spots in urban areas in support of mitigation plans to counteract overheating: Application for Athens, Climate 6(1): 16. https://doi.org/10.3390/cli6010016
Mbow, C.; Smith, P.; Skole, D.; Duguma, L.; Bustamante, M. 2014. Achieving mitigation and adaptation to climate change through sustainable agroforestry practices in Africa, Current Opinion in Environmental Sustainability 6: 8–14. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cosust.2013.09.002
McPherson, E. G.; Simpson, J. R.; Peper, P. J.; Scott, K. I.; Xiao, Q. 2000. Tree guidelines for Coastal Southern California communities. Western Center for Urban Forest Research and Education USDA Forest Service, Pacific Southwest Research Station.
McPherson, E. G.; Xiao, Q.; van Doorn, N. S.; Johnson, N.; Albers, S.; Peper, P. J. 2018. Shade factors for 149 taxa of in-leaf urban trees in the USA, Urban Forestry & Urban Greening 31: 204–211. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ufug.2018.03.001
Medlyn, B. E.; Duursma, R. A.; Eamus, D.; Ellsworth, D. S.; Prentice, I. C.; Barton, C. V. M.; Crous, K. Y.; De Angelis, P.; Freeman, M.; Wingate, L. 2011. Reconciling the optimal and empirical approaches to modelling stomatal conductance, Global Change Biology 17(6): 2134–2144. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2486.2010.02375.x
Meier, F.; Scherer, D. 2012. Spatial and temporal variability of urban tree canopy temperature during summer 2010 in Berlin, Germany, Theoretical and Applied Climatology 110(3): 373–384. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00704-012-0631-0
Merino, I.; Contreras, A.; Jing, Z.-P.; Gallardo, F.; Canovas, F. M.; Gomez, L. 2014. Plantation forestry under global warming: Hybrid poplars with improved thermotolerance provide new insights on the in vivo function of small heat shock protein chaperones, Plant Physiology 164(2): 978–991. https://doi.org/10.1104/pp.113.225730
Merlin, O.; Bitar, A.; Walker, P.; Kerr, Y. 2010. An improved algorithm for disaggregating microwave-derived soil moisture based on red, near-infrared and thermal-infrared data, Remote Sensing of Environment 114: 2305–2316. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rse.2010.05.007
Mirzaei, P. A.; Haghighat, F. 2010. Approaches to study Urban Heat Island – Abilities and limitations, Building and Environment 45: 2192–2201. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.buildenv.2010.04.001
Mochida, A.; Lun, I. Y. F. 2008. Prediction of wind environment and thermal comfort at pedestrian level in urban area, Journal of Wind Engineering & Industrial Aerodynamics 96: 1498–1527. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.JWEIA.2008.02.033
Monclus, R.; Villar, M.; Barbaroux, C.; Bastien, C.; Fichot, R.; Delmotte, F. M.; Brignolas, F. 2009. Productivity, water-use efficiency and tolerance to moderate water deficit correlate in 33 poplar genotypes from a Populus deltoides × Populus trichocarpa F1 progeny, Tree Physiology 29: 1329–1339. https://doi.org/10.1093/treephys/tpp075
Monsi, M.; Saeki, T. 2005. On the factor light in plant communities and its importance for matter production. 1953, Annals of Botany 95: 549–67. https://doi.org/10.1093/aob/mci052
Monterusso, M. A.; Rowe, D. B.; Rugh, C. L. 2005. Establishment and persistence of Sedum spp. and native taxa for green roof applications, HortScience 40(2): 391–396.
Morakinyo, T. E.; Dahanayake, K. W. D. K. C.; Ng, E. 2017a. Temperature and cooling demand reduction by green-roof types in different climates and urban densities: A co-simulation parametric study, Energy and Buildings 145: 226–237. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enbuild.2017.03.066
Morakinyo, T. E.; Kong, L.; Lau, K. K.-L.; Yuan, C.; Ng, E. 2017b. A study on the impact of shadow-cast and tree species on in-canyon and neighborhood’s thermal comfort, Building and Environment 115: 1–17. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.buildenv.2017.01.005
Morakinyo, T. E.; Lai, A.; Lau, K. K.-L.; Ng, E. 2017c. Thermal benefits of vertical greening in a high-density city: Case study of Hong Kong, Urban Forestry & Urban Greening. In Press, Corrected Proof. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ufug.2017.11.010
Morakinyo, T. E.; Lam, Y. F. 2015. Simulation study of dispersion and removal of particulate matter from traffic by road-side vegetation barrier, Environmental Science and Pollution Research 23(7): 6709–6722. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-015-5839-y
Morakinyo, T. E.; Lam, Y. F. 2016. Simulation study on the impact of tree-configuration, planting pattern and wind condition on street-canyon’s micro-climate and thermal comfort, Building and Environment 103: 262–275. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.buildenv.2016.04.025
Morakinyo, T. E.; Lau, K. K. L.; Ren, C.; Ng, E. 2018. Performance of Hong Kong’s common trees species for outdoor temperature regulation, thermal comfort and energy saving, Building and Environment 137: 157–170. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.buildenv.2018.04.012
Moriyama, M.; Kono, H.; Yoshida, A.; Miyazaki, H.; Takebayashi, H. 2001. Data analysis on “cool spot” effect of green canopy in urban areas, Journal of Architecture and Planning (Transactions of AIJ) 66: 49–56. https://doi.org/10.3130/aija.66.49_1
Moriyama, M.; Takebayashi, H.; Fukumoto, K. 1997. Effects of green areas on urban air temperature by numerical solution, Kobe University Repository 15: 101–115.
Myint, S. W. 2006. Urban vegetation mapping using sub-pixel analysis and expert systems rules: a critical approach, International Journal of Remote Sensing 27: 2645–2665. https://doi.org/10.1080/01431160500534630
Myint, S. W.; Gober, P.; Brazel, A.; Grossman-Clarke, S.; Weng, P. 2011. Per-pixel vs object based classification of urban land cover extraction using high spatial resolution imagery, Remote Sensing of Environment 115: 1145–1161. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rse.2010.12.017
Naeem, S.; Cao, C.; Qazi, W.; Zamani, M.; Wei, C.; Archarya, B.; Rehman, A. 2018. Studying the association between green space characteristics and land surface temperature for sustainable urban environments: An analysis of Beijing and Islamabad, International Journal of Geo-Information 7: 38–72. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijgi7020038
Nagase, A.; Dunnett, N. 2010. Drought tolerance in different vegetation types for extensive green roofs: effects of watering and diversity, Landscape and Urban Planning 97: 318–327. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landurbplan.2010.07.005
Nagashima, K. 1996. From decocity towards ecocity, Ekistics 63: 70–79.
Nakayoshi, M.; Kanda, M.; Shi, R.; de Dear, R. 2014. Outdoor thermal physiology along human pathways: a study using a wearable measurement system, International Journal of Biometeorology 59(5): 503–515. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00484-014-0864-y
National Parks Board. 2017. A handbook on developing sustainable highrise gardens bringing greenery skywards. https://www.nparks.gov.sg/-/media/srg/files/handbook-1.pdf
Ng, E. 2009. Policies and technical guidelines for urban planning of high-density cities–air ventilation assessment (AVA) of Hong Kong, Building and Environment 44(7): 1478–1488. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.buildenv.2008.06.013
Ng, E.; Chen, L.; Wang, Y.; Yuan, C. 2012. A study on the cooling effects of greening in a high-density city: An experience from Hong Kong, Building and Environment 47: 256–271. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.buildenv.2011.07.014
Nichol, J.; Lee, C. 2005. Urban vegetation monitoring in Hong Kong using high resolution multispectral images, International Journal of Remote Sensing 26: 903–918. https://doi.org/10.1080/01431160412331291198
Nichol, J.; Wong, M. 2007. Remote sensing of urban vegetation life form by spectral mixture analysis of high-resolution IKONOS satellite images, International Journal of Remote Sensing 28: 985–1000. https://doi.org/10.1080/01431160600784176
Norton, B. A.; Coutts, A. M.; Livesley, S. J.; Harris, R. J.; Hunter, A. M.; Williams, N. S. 2015. Planning for cooler cities: A framework to prioritise green infrastructure to mitigate high temperatures in urban landscapes, Landscape and Urban Planning 134: 127–138. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landurbplan.2014.10.018
Nowak, D. J.; Civerolo, K. L.; Rao, S. T.; Sistla, G.; Luley, C. J.; Crane, D. E. 2000. A modeling study of the impact of urban trees on ozone, Atmospheric Environment 34: 1601–1613. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1352-2310(99)00394-5
Nowak, D. J.; Crane, D. E.
Akbari, H.; Davis, S.; Dorsano, S.; Huang, J.; Winnett, S. 1992. Cooling our communities. A guidebook on tree planting and light-colored surfacing. US Environmental Protection Agency, USA.
Akbari, H.; Huang, J.; Martien, P.; Rainer, L.; Rosenfeld, A.; Taha, H. 1989. Saving energy and reducing atmospheric pollution by controlling summer heat islands, in K. Garbesi, H. Akbari, P. Martien (Eds.). Controlling summer heat islands. Berkeley, California: Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory.
Akbari, H.; Konopacki, S. 2004. Energy effects of heat-island reduction strategies in Toronto, Canada, Energy 29(2): 191–210. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2003.09.004
Akbari, H.; Konopacki, S. 2005. Calculating energy-saving potentials of heat-island reduction strategies, Energy Policy 33(6): 721–756. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enpol.2003.10.001
Akbari, H.; Pomerantz, M.; Taha, H. 2001. Cool surfaces and shade trees to reduce energy use and improve air quality in urban areas, Solar Energy 70(3): 295–310. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0038-092X(00)00089-X
Alcamo, J. 2003. Ecosystems and human well-being: a framework for assessment. Washington: Island Press.
Alcazar, S. S.; Olivieri, F.; Neila, J. 2015. Green roofs: Experimental and analytical study of its potential for urban microclimate regulation in Mediterranean-continental climates, Urban Climate 17: 304–317. http://doi.org/10.1016/j.uclim.2016.02.004
Alexandri, E.; Jones, P. 2008. Temperature decreases in an urban canyon due to green walls and green roofs in diverse climates, Building and Environment 43(4): 480–493. http://doi.org/10.1016/j.buildenv.2006.10.055
Allen, C. D.; Macalady, A. K.; Chenchouni, H.; Bachelet, D.; McDowell, N.; Vennetier, M.; Kitzbergerg, T.; Rigling, A.; Breshears, D. D.; (Ted) Hogg, E. H.; Gonzalez, P.; Fensham, R.; Zhang, Z.; Castro, J.; Demidova, N.; Li, J.-H.; Allard, G.; Running, S. W.; Semerci, A.; Cobb, N. 2010. A global overview of drought and heat induced tree mortality reveals emerging climate change risks for forests, Forest Ecology and Management 259: 660–684. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foreco.2009.09.001
Ameen, R. F. M.; Mourshed, M.; Li, H. 2015. A critical review of environmental assessment tools for sustainable urban design, Environmental Impact Assessment Review 55: 110–125. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eiar.2015.07.006
Ameye, M.; Wertin, T. M.; Bauweraerts, I.; McGuire, M. A.; Teskey, R. O.; Steppe, K. 2012. The effect of induced heat waves on Pinus taeda and Quercus rubra seedlings in ambient and elevated CO2 atmospheres, The New Phytologist 196: 448–461. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-8137.2012.04267.x
Anderegg, W. R. L.; Berry, J. A.; Field, C. B. 2012. Linking definitions, mechanisms, and modeling of drought-induced tree death, Trends in Plant Science 17: 693–700. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tplants.2012.09.006
Arbor Day Foundation. 2016. The right tree for the right place. Tree City USA.
ASTM C1371-15 Standard test method for determination of emittance of materials near room temperature using portable emissometers. ASTM International, 2015. https://doi.org/10.1520/C1371-15
ASTM C1549-16 Standard test method for determination of solar reflectance near ambient temperature using a portable solar reflectometer. ASTM International, 2016. https://doi.org/10.1520/C1549-16
ASTM E1918-16 Standard test method for measuring solar reflectance of horizontal and low-sloped surfaces in the field. ASTM International, 2016. https://doi.org/10.1520/E1918-16
ASTM E903-12 Standard test method for solar absorptance, reflectance, and transmittance of materials using integrating spheres. ASTM International, 2012. https://doi.org/10.1520/E0903-12
Ayanu, Y. Z.; Conrad, C.; Nauss, M.; Wegmann, M.; Koellner, T. 2012. Quantifying and mapping ecosystem services supplies and demands: a review of remote sensing applications, Environmental Science Technology 46: 8529–8541. https://doi.org/10.1021/es300157u
Bacci, L.; Morabito, M.; Raschi, A.; Ugolini, F. 2003. Thermohygrometric conditions of some urban parks of Florence (Italy) and their effect on human wellbeing, in Proceedings of the “Fifth International Conference on Urban Climate”, 1–5 September 2003, Lodz, Poland.
Ball, J.; Woodrow, I.; Berry, J. A. 1987. A model predicting stomatal conductance and its contribution to the control of photosynthesis under different environmental conditions, in Progress in Photosynthesis Research, Proceedings of the VIIth International Congress on Photosynthesis Providence, 10–15 August 1987, Rhode Island, USA, 221–224. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-017-0519-6_48
Ban, Y.; Hu, H.; Rangel, I. 2010. Fusion of QuickBird MS and RADARSAT SAR data for urban land-cover mapping: object-based and knowledge based approach, International Journal of Remote Sensing 31: 1391–1410. https://doi.org/10.1080/01431160903475415
Bartesaghi Koc, C.; Osmond, P.; Peters, A. 2017. Towards a comprehensive green infrastructure typology: a systematic review of approaches, methods and typologies, Urban Ecosystems 20(1): 15–35. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11252-016-0578-5
Barton, J.; Pretty, J. 2010. What is the best dose of nature and green exercise for improving mental health – A multi-study analysis, Environmental Science & Technology 44: 3947–3955. https://doi.org/10.1021/es903183r
Baumgardner, D.; Varela, S.; Escobedo, F. J.; Chacalo, A.; Ochoa, C. 2012. The role of a peri-urban forest on air quality improvement in the Mexico City megalópolis, Environmental Pollution 163: 174–183. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2011.12.016
Bauweraerts, I.; Wertin, T. M.; Ameye, M.; McGuire, M. A.; Teskey, R. O.; Steppe, K. 2013. The effect of heat waves, elevated [CO2] and low soil water availability on northern red oak (Quercus rubra L.) seedlings, Global Change Biology 19: 517–528. https://doi.org/10.1111/gcb.12044
Beatty, R. A. 1989. Planting guidelines for heat island mitigation and energy conservation, in Controlling Summer Heat Islands, Proceedings of the Workshop on Saving Energy and Reducing Atmospheric Pollution by Controlling Summer Heat Islands, 23–24 February, Berkeley, California, USA.
Belussi, L.; Barozzi, B. 2015. Mitigation measures to contain the environmental impact of urban areas: a bibliographic review moving from the life cycle approach, Environmental Monitoring and Assessment 187(12): 745. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-015-4960-1
Benjamin, M. T.; Winer, A. M. 1998. Estimating the ozone-forming potential of urban trees and shrubs, Atmospheric Environment 32: 53–68. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1352-2310(97)00176-3
Berardi, U. 2013. Sustainability assessment of urban communities through rating systems, Environment, Development and Sustainability 15(6): 1573–1591. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10668-013-9462-0
Berardi, U. 2016. The outdoor microclimate benefits and energy saving resulting from green roofs retrofits, Energy and Buildings 121: 217–229. http://doi.org/10.1016/j.enbuild.2016.03.021
Bernard, J.; Rodler, A.; Morille, B.; Zhang, X. 2018. How to design a park and its surrounding urban morphology to optimize the spreading of cool air, Climate 60: 10. https://doi.org/10.3390/cli6010010
Berndtsson, J. C. 2010. Green roof performance towards management of runoff water quantity and quality: A review, Ecological Engineering 36(4): 351–360. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoleng.2009.12.014
Besir, A. B.; Cuce, E. 2018. Green roofs and facades: A comprehensive review, Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 82(Part 1): 915–939. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2017.09.106
Bevilacqua, P.; Coma, J.; Pérez, G.; Chocarro, C.; Juárez, A.; Solé, C.; Solé, C.; De Simone, M.; Cabeza, L. F. 2015. Plant cover and floristic composition effect on thermal behaviour of extensive green roofs, Building and Environment 92: 305–316. http://doi.org/10.1016/j.buildenv.2015.04.026
Bigras, F. J. 2000. Selection of white spruce families in the context of climate change: Heat tolerance, Tree Physiology 20(18): 1227–1234. https://doi.org/10.1093/treephys/20.18.1227
Bita, C. E.; Gerats, T. 2013. Plant tolerance to high temperature in a changing environment: scientific fundamentals and production of heat stress-tolerant crops, Frontiers in Plant Science 4: 273. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpls.2013.00273
Blanusa, T.; Vaz Monteiro, M.; Fantozzi, F.; Vysini, E.; Li, Y.; Cameron, R. W. F. 2013. Alternatives to Sedum on green roofs: Can broad leaf perennial plants offer better ‘cooling service’?, Building and Environment 59: 99–106. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.buildenv.2012.08.011
Bork, E.; Su, J. 2007. Integrating LIDAR data and multispectral imagery for enhanced classification of rangeland vegetation: A meta-analysis, Remote Sensing of Environment 111: 11–24. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rse.2007.03.011
Bowler, D. E.; Buyung-Ali, L.; Knight, T. M.; Pullin, A. S. 2010. Urban greening to cool towns and cities: A systematic review of the empirical evidence, Landscape and Urban Planning 97(3): 147–155. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landurbplan.2010.05.006
Brazel, A. P.; Gober, S. J.; Lee, S.; Grossman-Clarke, J.; Hedquist, Z. B.; Comparri, E. 2007. Determinants of changes in the regional urban heat island in metropolitan Phoenix between 1990 and 2004, Climate Research 33: 171–182. https://doi.org/10.3354/cr033171
Broadbent, A. M.; Coutts, A. M.; Tapper, N. J.; Demuzere, M. 2018. The cooling effect of irrigation on urban microclimate during heatwave conditions, Urban Climate 23: 309–329. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.uclim.2017.05.002
Buccolieri, R.; Gromke, C.; Di Sabatino, S.; Ruck, B. 2009. Aerodynamic effects of trees on pollutant concentration in street canyons, Science of the Total Environment 407: 5247–5256. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2009.06.016
Ca, V. T.; Asaeda, T.; Abu, E. M. 1998. Reductions in air conditioning energy caused by a nearby park, Energy and Buildings 29: 83–92. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0378-7788(98)00032-2
Cairns, J. E.; Crossa, J.; Zaidi, P. H.; Grudloyma, P.; Sanchez, C.; Luis Araus, J.; Thaitad, S.; Makumbi, D.; Magorokosho, C.; Bänziger, M.; Menkir, A.; Hearne, S.; Atlin, G. N. 2013. Identification of drought, heat, and combined drought and heat tolerant donors in maize, Crop Science 53(4): 1335–1346. https://doi.org/10.2135/cropsci2012.09.0545
Cao, C. T. N.; Farrell, C.; Kristiansen, P. E.; Rayner, J. P. 2014. Biochar makes green roof substrates lighter and improves water supply to plants, Ecological Engineering 71: 368–374. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoleng.2014.06.017
Cao, Q.; Yu, D.; Georgescu, M.; Han, Z.; Wu, J. 2015. Impacts of land use and land cover change on regional climate: A case study in the agro-pastoral transitional zone of China, Environmental Research Letters 10(12). https://doi.org/10.1088/1748-9326/10/12/124025
Cao, X.; Onishi, A.; Chena, J.; Imura, H. 2010. Quantifying the cool island intensity of urban parks using ASTER and IKONOS data, Landscape Urban Planning 96: 224–231. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landurbplan.2010.03.008
Cartalis, C. 2017. Prerequisites for nature based solutions in cities, in European Forum on Nature Based Solutions, October 2017, Tallinn, Estonia.
Cartalis, C.; Santamouris, M.; Polydoros, A.; Nyktarakis, G.; Mavrakou, T. 2016. Assessing the interlinks between urbanization, the built environment and the thermal environment in view of smart and sustainable urban development: a demonstration application for Athens, International Journal of Earth and Environmental Sciences 1. Article ID 1:IJEES-107. https://doi.org/10.15344/2456-351X/2016/107
Castaldo, V. L.; Pisello, A. L.; Piselli, C.; Fabiani, C.; Cotana, F.; Santamouris, M. 2018. How outdoor microclimate mitigation affects building thermal-energy performance: A new design-stage method for energy saving in residential near-zero energy settlements in Italy, Renewable Energy 127: 920–935. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.renene.2018.04.090
Chang, C. R.; Li, M. H.; Chang, S. D. 2007. A preliminary study on the local cool-island intensity of Taipei city parks, Landscape and Urban Planning 80(4): 386–395.
Chang, C.-R.; Li, M.-H. 2014. Effects of urban parks on the local urban thermal environment, Urban Forestry and Urban Greening 13(4): 672–681. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ufug.2014.08.001
Chen, C. F. 2013. Performance evaluation and development strategies for green roofs in Taiwan: A review, Ecological Engineering 52: 51–58. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoleng.2012.12.083
Chen, F.; Kusaka, H.; Bornstein, R.; Ching, J.; Grimmond, C. S. B.; Grossman-Clarke, S.; Loridan, T.; Manning, K. W.; Martilli, A.; Miao, S.; Sailor, D.; Salamanca, F. P.; Taha, H.; Tewari, M.; Wang, X.; Wyszogrodzki, A. A.; Zhang, C. 2011. The integrated WRF/urban modelling system: development, evaluation, and applications to urban environmental problems, International Journal of Climatology 31: 273–288. https://doi.org/10.1002/joc.2158
Chen, X.; Su, Y.; Li, D.; Huang, G.; Chen, W.; Chen, S. 2012. Study on the cooling effects of urban parks on surrounding environments using Landsat TM data: a case study in Guangzhou, southern China, International Journal of Remote Sensing 33(18): 5889–5914. https://doi.org/10.1080/01431161.2012.676743
Cheng, C. Y.; Cheung, K. K. S.; Chu, L. M. 2010. Thermal performance of a vegetated cladding system on facade walls, Building and Environment 45(8): 1779–1787. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.buildenv.2010.02.005
Churkina, G.; Kuik, F.; Bonn, B.; Lauer, A.; Grote, R.; Tomiak, K.; Butler, T. M. 2017. Effect of VOC emissions from vegetation on air quality in Berlin during a heat wave, Environmental Science & Technology 51: 6120–6130. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.est.6b06514
Clark, J.; Kjelgren, R. 1990. Water as a limiting factor in the development of urban trees, Journal of Arboriculture 16(8): 203–208.
Cole, R. J. 1998. Emerging trends in building environmental assessment methods, Building Research & Information 26(1): 3–16. https://doi.org/10.1080/096132198370065
Cole, R. J. 2005. Building environmental assessment methods: redefining intentions and roles, Building Research & Information 33(5): 455–467. https://doi.org/10.1080/09613210500219063
Coleman, R. F.; Drake, J. F.; McAtee, M. D.; Belsma, L. O. 2010. Anthropogenic moisture effects on WRF summertime surface temperature and mixing ratio forecast skills in Southern California, Weather and Forecasting 25(5): 1522–1535. https://doi.org/10.1175/2010WAF2222384.1
Colombo, S. J.; Timmer, V. R. 1992. Limits of tolerance to high temperatures causing direct and indirect damage to black spruce, Tree Physiology 11: 95–104. https://doi.org/10.1093/treephys/11.1.95
Colombo, S.; Timmer, V.; Colclough, M.; Blumwald, E. 1995. Diurnal variation in heat tolerance and heat shock protein expression in black spruce (Piceamariana), Canadian Journal of Forest Research 25(3): 369–375. https://doi.org/10.1139/x95-041
Copernicus. 2018. Urban atlas [online]. Available from Internet: https://land.copernicus.eu/local/urban-atlas/street-tree-layer-stl/view
Cowan, T.; Purich, A.; Perkins, S.; Pezza, A.; Boschat, G.; Sadler, K. 2014. More frequent, longer, and hotter heat waves for Australia in the twenty-first century, Journal of Climate 27: 5851–5871. https://doi.org/10.1175/JCLI-D-14-00092.1
Currie, B. A.; Bass, B. 2008. Estimates of air pollution mitigation with green plants and green roofs using the UFORE model, Urban Ecosystems 11: 409–422. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11252-008-0054-y
Curtis, E. M.; Leigh, A.; Rayburg, S. 2012. Relationships among leaf traits of Australian arid zone plants: alternative modes of thermal protection, Australian Journal of Botany 60: 471–483. https://doi.org/10.1071/BT11284
Dahanayake, K. C.; Chow, C. L.; Long Hou, G. 2017. Selection of suitable plant species for energy efficient Vertical Greenery Systems (VGS), Energy Procedia 142: 2473–2478. http://doi.org/10.1016/j.egypro.2017.12.185
de Abreu-Harbich, L. V.; Labaki, L. C.; Matzarakis, A. 2015. Effect of tree planting design and tree species on human thermal comfort in the tropics, Landscape and Urban Planning 138: 99–109. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.LANDURBPLAN.2015.02.008
de Dear, R.; Kim, J. 2016. Thermal comfort inside and outside buildings, in Y. Tamura, R. Yoshie (Eds.). Advanced environmental wind engineering. Springer, 89–99.
De Jesus, M. P.; Lourenço, J. M.; Arce, R. M.; Macias, M. 2017. Green façades and in situ measurements of outdoor building thermal behaviour, Building and Environment 119: 11–19. http://doi.org/10.1016/j.buildenv.2017.03.041
Deak Sjöman, J. 2016. The hidden landscape: On fine-scale green structure and its role in regulating ecosystem services in the urban environment, Acta Universitatis Agriculturae Sueciae 3.
Declet-Barreto, J.; Brazel, A. J.; Martin, C. A.; Chow, W. T. L.; Harlan, S. L. 2013. Creating the park cool island in an inner-city neighborhood: heat mitigation strategy for Phoenix, AZ, Urban Ecosystems 16(3): 617–635. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11252-012-0278-8
Dennis, M.; Barlow, D.; Cavan, G.; Cook, P.; Gilchrist, A.; Handley, J.; James, P.; Thompson, J.; Tzoulas, K.; Wheater, P.; Lindley, S. 2018. Mapping urban green infrastructure: A novel landscape-based approach to incorporating land use and land cover in the mapping of human-dominated systems, Land 7: 17–25. https://doi.org/10.3390/land7010017
Dimoudi, A.; Nikolopoulou, M. 2003. Vegetation in the urban environment: microclimatic analysis and benefits, Energy and Buildings 35: 69–76. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0378-7788(02)00081-6
Ding, G. K. 2008. Sustainable construction – The role of environmental assessment tools, Journal of Environmental Management 86(3): 451–464. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2006.12.025
Doick, K. J.; Peace, A.; Hutchings, T. R. 2014. The role of one large greenspace in mitigating London’s nocturnal urban heat island, Science of the Total Environment 493: 662–671. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2014.06.048
Doick, K.; Hutchings, T. 2013. Air temperature regulation by urban trees and green infrastructure. Forestry Commission, UK.
Dooling, S. 2009. Ecological gentrification: A Research agenda exploring justice in the city, International Journal of Urban and Regional Research 33: 621–639. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-2427.2009.00860.x
Drake, J. E.; Tjoelker, M. G.; Vårhammar, A.; Medlyn, B. E.; Reich, P. B.; Leigh, A.; Pfautsch, S.; Blackman, C. J.; López, R.; Aspinwall, M. J.; Crous, K. Y.; Duursma, R. A.; Kumarathunge, D.; De Kauwe, M. G.; Jiang, M.; Nicotra, A. B.; Tissue, D. T.; Choat, B.; Atkin, O. K.; Barton, C. V. M. 2018. Trees tolerate an extreme heatwave via sustained transpirational cooling and increased leaf thermal tolerance, Global Change Biology 24(6): 2390–2402. https://doi.org/10.1111/gcb.14037
Du, H.; Cai, W.; Xu, Y.; Wang, Z.; Wang, Y.; Cai, Y. 2017. Quantifying the cool island effects of urban green spaces using remote sensing data, Urban Forestry & Urban Greening 27: 24–31. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ufug.2017.06.008
Ehleringer, J. R.; Mooney, H. A. 1978. Leaf hairs: Effects on physiological activity and adaptive value to a desert shrub, Oecologia 37: 183–200. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00344990
Eisenman, T. S. 2013. Frederick Law Olmsted, green infrastructure, and the evolving city, Journal of Planning History 12: 287–311. https://doi.org/10.1177/1538513212474227
Ellis, K. N.; Hathaway, L.; Mason, R.; Howe, D. A.; Epps, T. H.; Brown, V. M. 2017. Summer temperature variability across four urban neighborhoods in Knoxville, Tennessee, USA, Theoretical and Applied Climatology 127(3–4): 701–710. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00704-015-1659-8
EN 15976:2011 Flexible sheets for waterproofing – Determination of emissivity. European Committee for Standardization (CEN), 2011.
Erell, E.; Pearlmutter, D.; Williamson, T. 2012. Urban microclimate: designing the spaces between buildings. Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781849775397
Essa, W.; Verbeiren, B.; van der Kwast, J.; Batelaan, O. 2013. Downscaling of thermal images over urban areas using the land surface temperature – Impervious percentage relationship, International Journal of Applied Earth Observation 23: 95–108. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jag.2012.12.007
Essa, W.; Verbeiren, B.; van der Kwast, J.; Batelaan, O. 2017. Improved DisTrad for downscaling thermal MODIS imagery over urban areas, Remote Sensing 8: 1243–1250. https://doi.org/10.3390/rs9121243
Feldhake, C. M. 2001. Microclimate of a natural pasture under planted Robinia pseudoacacia in central Appalachia, West Virginia, Agroforestry Systems 53(3): 297–303. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1013331628494
FLL. 2008. Guidelines for the planning, construction and maintenance of green roofing. Bonn: Forschungsgesellschaft Landschaftsentwicklung Landschaftsbau e.V. (FLL).
Forster, M.; Englefield, A. 2018. Can soils assist grapevines in coping with heatwaves?, Soil Science Australia 186.
Founta, D.; Santamouris, M. 2017. Synergies between Urban Heat Island and Heat Waves in Athens (Greece), during an extremely hot summer, Scientific Reports – Nature 7. Article number 10973.
Frankenstein, S.; Koenig, G. 2004. FASST vegetation models. Technical Report TR-04-25U.S. Army Engineer Research and Development Center, Cold Regions Research and Engineering Laboratory (ERDC/CRREL).
Frumkin, H. 2003. Healthy places: Exploring the evidence, American Journal of Public Health 93: 1451–1456. https://doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.93.9.1451
Gehrels, H.; van der Meulen, S.; Schasfoort, F.; Bosch, P.; Brolsma, R.; van Dinther, D.; Geerling, G.; Goossens, M.; Jacobs, C.; Kok, S. 2016. Designing green and blue infrastructure to support healthy urban living. TO2 Federatie.
Georgescu, M. 2015. Challenges associated with adaptation to future expansion, Journal of Climate 31: 2544–2563. https://doi.org/10.1175/JCLI-D-14-00290.1
Georgescu, M.; Moustaoui, M.; Mahalov, A.; Dudhia, J. 2011. An alternative explanation of the semiarid urban area “oasis effect”, Journal of Geophysical Research Atmospheres 116(24): 1–13. https://doi.org/10.1029/2011JD016720
Ghirardo, A.; Xie, J.; Zheng, X.; Wang, Y.; Grote, R.; Block, K.; Wildt, J.; Mentel, T.; Kiendler-Scharr, A.; Hallquist, M.; Butterbach-Bahl, K.; Schnitzler, J.-P. 2016. Urban stress-induced biogenic VOC emissions and SOA-forming potentials in Beijing, Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics 16: 2901–2920. https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-16-2901-2016
Ghobadi, A.; Khosravi, M.; Tavousi, T. 2018. Surveying of heat waves impact on the urban heat islands: Case study, the Karaj City in Iran, Urban Climate 24: 600–615. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.uclim.2017.12.004
Gill, S. E.; Handley, J. F.; Ennos, A. R.; Pauleit, S. 2007. Adapting cities for climate change: The role of the green infrastructure, Built Environment 33(1): 115–133. https://doi.org/10.2148/benv.33.1.115
GLTMS. 2015. Appendix 8 – Right tree right place quick reference guide. Development Bureau, HKSAR.
Grimmond, C. S. B.; Blackett, M.; Best, M. J.; Baik, J.-J.; Belcher, S. E.; Beringer, J.; Bohnenstengel, S. I.; Calmet, I.; Chen, F.; Coutts, A.; Dandou, A.; Fortuniak, K.; Gouvea, M. L.; Hamdi, R.; Hendry, M.; Kanda, M.; Kawai, T.; Kawamoto, Y.; Kondo, H.; Krayenhoff, E. S.; Lee, S.-H.; Loridan, T., Martilli, A.; Masson, V.; Miao, S.; Oleson, K.; Ooka, R.; Pigeon, G.; Porson, A.; Ryu, Y.-H.; Salamanca, F.; Steeneveld, G. J.; Tombrou, M.; Voogt, J. A.; Young, D. T.; Zhang, N. 2011. Initial results from Phase 2 of the international urban energy balance model comparison, International Journal of Climatology 31(2): 244–272. https://doi.org/10.1002/joc.2227
Grimmond, C. S. B.; Blackett, M.; Best, M. J.; Barlow, J.; Baik, J.-J.; Belcher, S. E.; Bohnenstengel, S. I.; Calmet, I.; Chen, F.; Dandou, A.; Fortuniak, K.; Gouvea, M. L.; Hamdi, R.; Hendry, M.; Kawai, T.; Kawamoto, Y.; Kondo, H.; Krayenhoff, E. S.; Lee, S.-H.; Loridan, T.; Martilli, A.; Masson, V.; Miao, S.; Oleson, K.; Pigeon, G.; Porson, A.; Ryu, Y.-H.; Salamanca, F.; Shashua-Bar, L.; Steeneveld, G.-J.; Tombrou, M.; Voogt, J.; Young, D.; Zhang, N. 2010. The international urban energy balance models comparison project: First results from phase 1, Journal of Applied Meteorology and Climatology 49: 1268–1292. https://doi.org/10.1175/2010JAMC2354.1
Grimmond, C. S. B.; Souch, C.; Hubble, M. D. 1996. Influence of tree cover on summertime surface energy balance fluxes, San Gabriel Valley, Los Angeles, Climate Research 6(1): 45–57. https://doi.org/10.3354/cr006045
Gromke, C. 2011. A vegetation modeling concept for Building and Environmental Aerodynamics wind tunnel tests and its application in pollutant dispersion studies, Environmental Pollution 159: 2094–2099. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2010.11.012
Gromke, C.; Blocken, B. 2014. Influence of avenue-trees on air quality at the urban neighborhood scale. Part I: Quality assurance studies and turbulent Schmidt number analysis for RANS CFD simulations, Environmental Pollution 196: 214–223. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2014.10.016
Grover, A.; Singh, R. B. 2015. Analysis of Urban Heat Island (UHI) in relation to Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI): A comparative study of Delhi and Mumbai, Environments 2: 125–138. https://doi.org/10.3390/environments2020125
Guenther, A. B.; Zimmerman, P. R.; Harley, P. C.; Monson, R. K.; Fall, R. 1993. Isoprene and monoterpene emission rate variability – model evaluations and sensitivity analyses, Journal of Geophysical Research 98: 12609–12617. https://doi.org/10.1029/93JD00527
Guenther, A.; Wiedinmyer, C. 2004. User’s guide to the Model of Emissions of Gases and Aerosols from Nature (MEGAN) [online], [cited 01 July 2018]. Available from Internet: http://acd.ucar.edu
Guha, A.; Han, J.; Cummings, C.; McLennan, D. A.; Warren, J. M. 2018. Differential ecophysiological responses and resilience to heat wave events in four co-occurring temperate tree species, Environmental Research Letters 13(6). https://doi.org/10.1088/1748-9326/aabcd8
Gülten, A.; Aksoy, U. T.; Öztop, H. F. 2016. Influence of trees on heat island potential in an urban canyon, Sustainable Cities and Society 26: 407–418. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.SCS.2016.04.006
Gulyás, A.; Unger, J.; Matzarakis, A. 2006. Assessment of the microclimatic and human comfort conditions in a complex urban environment: Modelling and measurements, Building and Environment 41: 1713–1722. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.buildenv.2005.07.001
Haapio, A.; Viitaniemi, P. 2008. A critical review of building environmental assessment tools, Environmental Impact Assessment Review 28(7): 469–482. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eiar.2008.01.002
Haas, J.; Ban, Y. 2017. Sentinel-1A SAR and sentinel-2A MSI data fusion for urban ecosystem mapping, Remote Sensing Applications: Society and Environment 8: 41–53. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rsase.2017.07.006
Haas, J.; Ban, Y. 2018. Urban land cover and ecosystem service changes based on Sentinel-2A MSI and Landsat TM Data, IEEE Journal of Selected Topics in Applied Earth Observations and Remote Sensing 11: 485–497. https://doi.org/10.1109/JSTARS.2017.2786468
Haldimann, P.; Galle, A.; Feller, U. 2008. Impact of an exceptionally hot dry summer on photosynthetic traits in oak (Quercus pubescens) leaves, Tree Physiology 28: 785–795. https://doi.org/10.1093/treephys/28.5.785
Hamada, S.; Ohta, T. 2010. Seasonal variations in the cooling effect of urban green areas on surrounding urban areas, Urban Forestry & Urban Greening 9: 15–24. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ufug.2009.10.002
Hamedani, A. Z.; Huber, F. 2012. A comparative study of DGNB, LEED and BREEAM certificate systems in urban sustainability, WIT Transactions on Ecology and The Environment 155: 1121–132. https://doi.org/10.2495/SC120111
Harfouche, A.; Meilan, R.; Altman, A. 2011. Tree genetic engineering and applications to sustainable forestry and biomass production, Trends in Biotechnology 29(1): 9–17. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tibtech.2010.09.003
Harrison, S. P.; Morfopoulos, C.; Dani, K. G. S.; Prentice, I. C.; Arneth, A.; Atwell, B. J.; Barkley, M. P.; Leishman, M. R.; Loreto, F.; Medlyn, B. E.; Niinemets, Ü.; Possell, M.; Peñuelas, J.; Wright, I. J. 2013. Volatile isoprenoid emissions from plastid to planet, New Phytologist 197: 49–57. https://doi.org/10.1111/nph.12021
Heisler, G. M. 1990. Mean wind speed below building height in residential neighborhoods with different tree densities, ASHRAE Transactions 96(1): 1389–1396.
Heisler, G. M.; Dewalle, D. R. 1988. 2. Effects of windbreak structure on wind flow, Agriculture, Ecosystems & Environment 22–23: 41–69. https://doi.org/10.1016/0167-8809(88)90007-2
Hoelscher, M.; Nehls, T.; Jänicke, B.; Wessolek, G. 2016. Quantifying cooling effects of facade greening: Shading, transpiration and insulation, Energy and Buildings 114: 283–290. http://doi.org/10.1016/j.enbuild.2015.06.047
Honjo, T.; Takakura, T. 1990–1991. Simulation of thermal effects of urban green areas on their surrounding areas, Energy and Buildings 15(3–4): 443–446. https://doi.org/10.1016/0378-7788(90)90019-F
Howard, E. 1898. Garden cities of tomorrow. London: General Books LLC.
Howe, D. A.; Hathaway, J. M.; Ellis, K. N.; Mason, L. R. 2017. Spatial and temporal variability of air temperature across urban neighborhoods with varying amounts of tree canopy, Urban Forestry & Urban Greening 27: 109–116. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ufug.2017.07.001
Huang, J.; Davis, S.; Akbari, H. 1990. A guidebook for the control of summer heat islands. Berkeley, California: Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory.
Hui, S. C. 2010. Development of technical guidelines for green roof systems in Hong Kong, in Proceedings of the Joint Symposium 2010 on Low Carbon High Performance Buildings.
Huo, X.; Ann, T. W.; Wu, Z. 2018. An empirical study of the variables affecting site planning and design in green buildings, Journal of Cleaner Production 175: 314–323. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2017.12.091
Jackson, L. E. 2003. The relationship of urban design to human health and condition, Landscape and Urban Planning 64(4): 191–200. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0169-2046(02)00230-X
Jänicke, B.; Meier, F.; Hoelscher, M.; Scherer, D. 2015. Evaluating the effects of façade greening on human bioclimate in a complex urban environment, Advances in Meteorology. Article ID 747259. https://doi.org/10.1155/2015/747259
Jayasooriya, V.; Ng, A.; Muthukumaran, S.; Perera, B. 2017. Green infrastructure practices for improvement of urban air quality, Urban Forestry & Urban Greening 21: 34–47. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ufug.2016.11.007
Jennings, V.; Larson, L.; Yun, J. 2016. Advancing sustainability through urban green space: Cultural ecosystem services, equity, and social determinants of health, Environmental Research and Public Health 13: 196. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph13020196
Jim, C. 2002. Planning strategies to overcome constraints on greenspace provision in urban Hong Kong, Town Planning Review 73(2): 127–152. https://doi.org/10.3828/tpr.73.2.1
Jim, C. Y. 2013. Sustainable urban greening strategies for compact cities in developing and developed economies, Urban Ecosystems 16: 741–761. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11252-012-0268-x
Jonsson, P. 2004. Vegetation as an urban climate control in the subtropical city of Gaborone, Botswana, International Journal of Climatology 24: 1307–1322. https://doi.org/10.1002/joc.1064
Kala, J.; De Kauwe, M. G.; Pitman, A. J.; Medlyn, B. E.; Wang, Y.-P.; Lorenz, R.; Perkins-Kirkpatrick, S. E. 2016. Impact of the representation of stomatal conductance on model projections of heatwave intensity, Scientific Reports – Nature 6: 23418. https://doi.org/10.1038/srep23418
Kalani, K. W. D.; Dahanayake, C.; Chow, C. L. 2016. Studying the potential of energy saving through vertical greenery systems: Using EnergyPlus simulation program, Energy and Buildings 138: 47–59. http://doi.org/10.1016/j.enbuild.2016.12.002
Kaloustian, N.; Aouad, D.; Battista, G.; Zinzi, M. 2018. Leftover spaces for the mitigation of urban overheating in municipal Beirut, Climate 6(3): 68. https://doi.org/10.3390/cli6030068
Kaplan, R.; Kaplan, S. 1989. The experience of nature: A psychological perspective. Cambridge, New York: Cambridge University Press.
Kato, T.; Yamada, T.; Hino, M. 2006. Spatial structure of air temperature and humidity in urban park forest and its surrounding, Journal of the Institute of Science and Engineering. Chuo University 12: 63–71.
Kent, C. W.; Grimmond, S.; Gatey, D. 2017a. Aerodynamic roughness parameters in cities: Inclusion of vegetation, Journal of Wind Engineering & Industrial Aerodynamics 169: 168–176. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jweia.2017.07.016
Kent, C. W.; Lee, K.; Ward, H. C.; Hong, J.-W.; Hong, J.; Gatey, D.; Grimmond, S. 2017b. Aerodynamic roughness variation with vegetation: analysis in a suburban neighbourhood and a city park, Urban Ecosystems 21: 227–243. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11252-017-0710-1
Kikegawa, Y.; Genchi, Y.; Kondo, H.; Hanaki, K. 2006. Impacts of city-block-scale countermeasures against urban heat-island phenomena upon a building’s energy-consumption for air-conditioning, Applied Energy 83(6): 649–668. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2005.06.001
Kim, J. H.; Gu, D.; Sohn, W.; Kil, S. H.; Kim, H.; Lee, D. K. 2016. Neighborhood landscape spatial patterns and land surface temperature. An empirical study on single family residential areas in Austin, Texas, International Journal for Environmental Research in Public Health 13: 880. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph13090880
Kolb, P. F.; Robberecht, R. 1996. High temperature and drought stress effects on survival of Pinus ponderosa seedlings, Tree Physiology 16: 665–672. https://doi.org/10.1093/treephys/16.8.665
Kong, F.; Sun, C.; Liu, F.; Yin, H.; Yingxia Pu, F. J.; Cavan, G.; Skelhorn, C.; Middel, A.; Dronova, I. 2016. Energy saving potential of fragmented green spaces due to their temperature regulating ecosystem services in the summer, Applied Energy 183: 1428–1440. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2016.09.070
Kong, L.; Lau, K. K.-L.; Yuan, C.; Chen, Y.; Xu, Y.; Ren, C.; Ng, E. 2017. Regulation of outdoor thermal comfort by trees in Hong Kong, Sustainable Cities and Society 31: 12–25. http://doi.org/10.1016/j.scs.2017.01.018
Konopacki, S.; Akbari, H. 2000. Energy savings calculations for heat-island reduction strategies in Baton Rouge, Sacramento, and Salt Lake City. Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory Report LBNL-42890, Berkeley, CA.
Konopacki, S.; Akbari, H. 2002. Energy savings for heat-island reduction strategies in Chicago and Houston (including updates for Baton Rouge, Sacramento, and Salt Lake City). Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory Report LBNL-94720, Berkeley, CA.
Koppenaal, R. S.; Colombo, S. J.; Blumwald, E. 1991. Acquired thermotolerance of jack pine, white spruce and black spruce seedlings, Tree Physiology 8(1): 83–91. https://doi.org/10.1093/treephys/8.1.83
Kosaka, E.; Iida, A.; Vanos, J.; Middel, A.; Yokohari, M.; Brown, R. 2018. Microclimate variation and estimated heat stress of runners in the 2020 Tokyo Olympic Marathon, Atmosphere 9: 192. https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos9050192
Kotthaus, S.; Grimmond, C. S. B. 2014. Energy exchange in a dense urban environment – Part I: Temporal variability of long-term observations in central London, Urban Climate 10: 261–280. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.uclim.2013.10.002
Krayenhoff, E. S.; Santiago, J.-L.; Martilli, A.; Christen, A.; Oke, T. R. 2015. Parametrization of drag and turbulence for urban neighbourhoods with trees, Boundary-Layer Meteorology 156: 157–189. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10546-015-0028-6
Kuo, F. E.; Sullivan, W. C. 2001. Aggression and violence in the inner city, Environment and Behavior 33: 543–571. https://doi.org/10.1177/00139160121973124
Kupper, P.; Sõber, J.; Sellin, A.; Lõhmus, K.; Tullus, A.; Räim, O.; Lubenets, K.; Tulva, I.; Uri, V.; Zobel, M.; Kull, O.; Sõber, A. 2011. An experimental facility for free air humidity manipulation (FAHM) can alter water flux through deciduous tree canopy, Environmental and Experimental Botany 72: 432–438. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envexpbot.2010.09.003
Kuras, E. R.; Richardson, M. B.; Calkins, M. M.; Ebi, K. L.; Hess, J. J.; Kintziger, K. W.; Jagger, M. A.; Middel, A.; Scott, A. A.; Spector, J. T.; Uejio, C. K.; Vanos, J. K.; Zaitchik, B. F.; Gohlke, J. M.; Hondula, D. M. 2017. Opportunities and challenges for personal heat exposure research, Environmental Health Perspectives 125(8): 085001. https://doi.org/10.1289/EHP556
Kustas, W.; Norman, J.; Anderson, M.; French, A. 2003. Estimating subpixel surface temperatures and energy fluxes from the vegetation index – Radiometric temperature relationship, Remote Sensing of Environment 85: 429–440. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0034-4257(03)00036-1
Kyriakodis, G.-E.; Santamouris, M. 2017. Using reflective pavements to mitigate urban heat island in warm climates – Results from a large scale urban mitigation project, Urban Climate 24: 326–339. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.uclim.2017.02.002
La Roche, P.; Berardi, U. 2014. Comfort and energy savings with active green roofs, Energy and Buildings 82: 492–504. http://doi.org/10.1016/j.enbuild.2014.07.055
Landsberg, H. 1970. Climatic consequences of urbanization, Journal of the Washington Academy of Sciences 60(3): 82–87.
Lang, S.; Blaschke, T.; Kothencz, G.; Holbling, D. 2018. Urban green mapping and valuation, in Q. Weng, D. Quattrochi, P. Gamba (Eds.). Urban remote sensing. Taylor and Francis Series in Satellite Remote Sensing. Taylor and Francis, 338.
Leuning, R. 1995. A critical-appraisal of a combined stomatal-photosynthesis model for C-3 plants, Plant Cell and Environment 18: 339–355. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-3040.1995.tb00370.x
Leuzinger, S.; Vogt, R.; Körner, C. 2010. Tree surface temperature in an urban environment, Agricultural and Forest Meteorology 150(1): 56–62. http://doi.org/10.1016/j.agrformet.2009.08.006
Li, W.; Radke, J.; Liu, D.; Gong, P. 2012. Measuring detailed urban vegetation with multisource high-resolution remote sensing imagery for environmental design and planning, Environmental Planning B: Planning and Design 39: 568–585. https://doi.org/10.1068/b37135
Li, X.; de Foy, B. 2012. Spatial pattern of greenspace affects land surface temperature: evidence from the heavily urbanized Beijing metropolitan area, China, Landscape Ecology 27: 887–898. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10980-012-9731-6
Lin, Y.-S.; Medlyn, B. E.; Duursma, R. A.; Prentice, I. C.; Wang, H.; Baig, S.; Eamus, D.; de Dios, V. R.; Mitchell, P.; Ellsworth, D. S.; de Beeck, M. O.; Wallin, G.; Uddling, J.; Tarvainen, L.; Linderson, M.-L.; Cernusak, L. A.; Nippert, J. B.; Ocheltree, T. W.; Tissue, D. T.; Martin-StPaul, N. K.; Rogers, A.; Warren, J. M.; De Angelis, P.; Hikosaka, K.; Han, Q.; Onoda, Y.; Gimeno, T. E.; Barton, C. V. M.; Bennie, J.; Bonal, D.; Bosc, A.; Löw, M.; Macinins-Ng, C.; Rey, A.; Rowland, L.; Setterfield, S. A.; Tausz-Posch, S.; Zaragoza-Castells, J.; Broadmeadow, M. S. J.; Drake, J. E.; Freeman, M.; Ghannoum, O.; Hutley, L. B.; Kelly, J. W.; Kikuzawa, K.; Kolari, P.; Koyama, K.; Limousin, J. M.; Meir, P.; da Costa, A. C. L.; Mikkelsen, T. N.; Salinas, N.; Sun, W.; Wingate, L. 2015. Optimal stomatal behaviour around the world, Nature Climate Change 5: 459–464. https://doi.org/10.1038/nclimate2550
Lontorfos, V.; Efthymiou, C.; Santamouris, M. 2018. On the time varying mitigation performance of reflective geoengineering technologies in cities, Renewable Energy 115: 926–930. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.renene.2017.09.033
Lorenz, R.; Davin, E. L.; Lawrence, D. M.; Stöckli, R.; Seneviratne, S. I. 2013. How important is vegetation phenology for European climate and heat waves?, Journal of Climate 26: 10077–10100. https://doi.org/10.1175/JCLI-D-13-00040.1
Lu, J.; Li, C.-D.; Yang, Y.-C.; Zhang, X.-H.; Jin, M. 2012. Quantitative evaluation of urban park cool island factors in mountain city, Journal of Central South University of Technology 19(6): 1657–1662. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11771-012-1189-9
Maes, J.; Barbosa, A.; Baranzelli, C.; Zulian, G.; Silva, F. B.; Vandecasteele, I.; Hiederer, R.; Liquete, C.; Paracchini, M. L.; Mubareka, S.; Jacobs-Crisioni, C.; Castillo, C. P.; Lavalle, C. 2014. More green infrastructure is required to maintain ecosystem services under current trends in land use change in Europe, Landscape Ecology 30: 517–534. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10980-014-0083-2
Manickathan, L.; Defraeye, T.; Allegrini, J.; Derome, D.; Carmeliet, J. 2018. Parametric study of the influence of environmental factors and tree properties on the transpirative cooling effect of trees, Agricultural and Forest Meteorology 248: 259–274. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agrformet.2017.10.014
Manso, M.; Castro-Gomes, J.; Paulo, B.; Bentes, I.; Teixeira, C. 2018. Life cycle analysis of a new modular greening system, Science of the Total Environment 627: 1146–1153. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2018.01.198
Mao, Y.; Nijssen, B.; Lettenmaier, D. P. 2015. Is climate change implicated in the 2013-2014 California drought? A hydrologic perspective, Geophysical Research Letters 42(8): 2805–2813. https://doi.org/10.1002/2015GL063456
Marando, F.; Slavatori, E.; Fusaro, L.; Manes, F. 2016. Removal of PM10 by forests as nature-based solution for air quality improvement in the Metropolitan City of Rome, Forests 7: 150. https://doi.org/10.3390/f7070150
March, D.; Hatch, S. L.; Morgan, C.; Kirkbride, J. B.; Bresnahan, M.; Fearon, P.; Susser, E. 2008. Psychosis and place, Epidemiologic Reviews 30: 84–100. https://doi.org/10.1093/epirev/mxn006
Mathieu, R.; Freeman, C.; Aryal, J. 2007. Mapping private gardens in urban areas using object oriented techniques and very high resolution satellite imagery, Landscape Urban Planning 81: 179–192. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landurbplan.2006.11.009
Mavrakou, T.; Polydoros, A.; Cartalis, C.; Santamouris, M. 2018. Recognition of thermal hot and cold spots in urban areas in support of mitigation plans to counteract overheating: Application for Athens, Climate 6(1): 16. https://doi.org/10.3390/cli6010016
Mbow, C.; Smith, P.; Skole, D.; Duguma, L.; Bustamante, M. 2014. Achieving mitigation and adaptation to climate change through sustainable agroforestry practices in Africa, Current Opinion in Environmental Sustainability 6: 8–14. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cosust.2013.09.002
McPherson, E. G.; Simpson, J. R.; Peper, P. J.; Scott, K. I.; Xiao, Q. 2000. Tree guidelines for Coastal Southern California communities. Western Center for Urban Forest Research and Education USDA Forest Service, Pacific Southwest Research Station.
McPherson, E. G.; Xiao, Q.; van Doorn, N. S.; Johnson, N.; Albers, S.; Peper, P. J. 2018. Shade factors for 149 taxa of in-leaf urban trees in the USA, Urban Forestry & Urban Greening 31: 204–211. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ufug.2018.03.001
Medlyn, B. E.; Duursma, R. A.; Eamus, D.; Ellsworth, D. S.; Prentice, I. C.; Barton, C. V. M.; Crous, K. Y.; De Angelis, P.; Freeman, M.; Wingate, L. 2011. Reconciling the optimal and empirical approaches to modelling stomatal conductance, Global Change Biology 17(6): 2134–2144. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2486.2010.02375.x
Meier, F.; Scherer, D. 2012. Spatial and temporal variability of urban tree canopy temperature during summer 2010 in Berlin, Germany, Theoretical and Applied Climatology 110(3): 373–384. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00704-012-0631-0
Merino, I.; Contreras, A.; Jing, Z.-P.; Gallardo, F.; Canovas, F. M.; Gomez, L. 2014. Plantation forestry under global warming: Hybrid poplars with improved thermotolerance provide new insights on the in vivo function of small heat shock protein chaperones, Plant Physiology 164(2): 978–991. https://doi.org/10.1104/pp.113.225730
Merlin, O.; Bitar, A.; Walker, P.; Kerr, Y. 2010. An improved algorithm for disaggregating microwave-derived soil moisture based on red, near-infrared and thermal-infrared data, Remote Sensing of Environment 114: 2305–2316. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rse.2010.05.007
Mirzaei, P. A.; Haghighat, F. 2010. Approaches to study Urban Heat Island – Abilities and limitations, Building and Environment 45: 2192–2201. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.buildenv.2010.04.001
Mochida, A.; Lun, I. Y. F. 2008. Prediction of wind environment and thermal comfort at pedestrian level in urban area, Journal of Wind Engineering & Industrial Aerodynamics 96: 1498–1527. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.JWEIA.2008.02.033
Monclus, R.; Villar, M.; Barbaroux, C.; Bastien, C.; Fichot, R.; Delmotte, F. M.; Brignolas, F. 2009. Productivity, water-use efficiency and tolerance to moderate water deficit correlate in 33 poplar genotypes from a Populus deltoides × Populus trichocarpa F1 progeny, Tree Physiology 29: 1329–1339. https://doi.org/10.1093/treephys/tpp075
Monsi, M.; Saeki, T. 2005. On the factor light in plant communities and its importance for matter production. 1953, Annals of Botany 95: 549–67. https://doi.org/10.1093/aob/mci052
Monterusso, M. A.; Rowe, D. B.; Rugh, C. L. 2005. Establishment and persistence of Sedum spp. and native taxa for green roof applications, HortScience 40(2): 391–396.
Morakinyo, T. E.; Dahanayake, K. W. D. K. C.; Ng, E. 2017a. Temperature and cooling demand reduction by green-roof types in different climates and urban densities: A co-simulation parametric study, Energy and Buildings 145: 226–237. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enbuild.2017.03.066
Morakinyo, T. E.; Kong, L.; Lau, K. K.-L.; Yuan, C.; Ng, E. 2017b. A study on the impact of shadow-cast and tree species on in-canyon and neighborhood’s thermal comfort, Building and Environment 115: 1–17. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.buildenv.2017.01.005
Morakinyo, T. E.; Lai, A.; Lau, K. K.-L.; Ng, E. 2017c. Thermal benefits of vertical greening in a high-density city: Case study of Hong Kong, Urban Forestry & Urban Greening. In Press, Corrected Proof. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ufug.2017.11.010
Morakinyo, T. E.; Lam, Y. F. 2015. Simulation study of dispersion and removal of particulate matter from traffic by road-side vegetation barrier, Environmental Science and Pollution Research 23(7): 6709–6722. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-015-5839-y
Morakinyo, T. E.; Lam, Y. F. 2016. Simulation study on the impact of tree-configuration, planting pattern and wind condition on street-canyon’s micro-climate and thermal comfort, Building and Environment 103: 262–275. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.buildenv.2016.04.025
Morakinyo, T. E.; Lau, K. K. L.; Ren, C.; Ng, E. 2018. Performance of Hong Kong’s common trees species for outdoor temperature regulation, thermal comfort and energy saving, Building and Environment 137: 157–170. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.buildenv.2018.04.012
Moriyama, M.; Kono, H.; Yoshida, A.; Miyazaki, H.; Takebayashi, H. 2001. Data analysis on “cool spot” effect of green canopy in urban areas, Journal of Architecture and Planning (Transactions of AIJ) 66: 49–56. https://doi.org/10.3130/aija.66.49_1
Moriyama, M.; Takebayashi, H.; Fukumoto, K. 1997. Effects of green areas on urban air temperature by numerical solution, Kobe University Repository 15: 101–115.
Myint, S. W. 2006. Urban vegetation mapping using sub-pixel analysis and expert systems rules: a critical approach, International Journal of Remote Sensing 27: 2645–2665. https://doi.org/10.1080/01431160500534630
Myint, S. W.; Gober, P.; Brazel, A.; Grossman-Clarke, S.; Weng, P. 2011. Per-pixel vs object based classification of urban land cover extraction using high spatial resolution imagery, Remote Sensing of Environment 115: 1145–1161. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rse.2010.12.017
Naeem, S.; Cao, C.; Qazi, W.; Zamani, M.; Wei, C.; Archarya, B.; Rehman, A. 2018. Studying the association between green space characteristics and land surface temperature for sustainable urban environments: An analysis of Beijing and Islamabad, International Journal of Geo-Information 7: 38–72. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijgi7020038
Nagase, A.; Dunnett, N. 2010. Drought tolerance in different vegetation types for extensive green roofs: effects of watering and diversity, Landscape and Urban Planning 97: 318–327. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landurbplan.2010.07.005
Nagashima, K. 1996. From decocity towards ecocity, Ekistics 63: 70–79.
Nakayoshi, M.; Kanda, M.; Shi, R.; de Dear, R. 2014. Outdoor thermal physiology along human pathways: a study using a wearable measurement system, International Journal of Biometeorology 59(5): 503–515. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00484-014-0864-y
National Parks Board. 2017. A handbook on developing sustainable highrise gardens bringing greenery skywards. https://www.nparks.gov.sg/-/media/srg/files/handbook-1.pdf
Ng, E. 2009. Policies and technical guidelines for urban planning of high-density cities–air ventilation assessment (AVA) of Hong Kong, Building and Environment 44(7): 1478–1488. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.buildenv.2008.06.013
Ng, E.; Chen, L.; Wang, Y.; Yuan, C. 2012. A study on the cooling effects of greening in a high-density city: An experience from Hong Kong, Building and Environment 47: 256–271. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.buildenv.2011.07.014
Nichol, J.; Lee, C. 2005. Urban vegetation monitoring in Hong Kong using high resolution multispectral images, International Journal of Remote Sensing 26: 903–918. https://doi.org/10.1080/01431160412331291198
Nichol, J.; Wong, M. 2007. Remote sensing of urban vegetation life form by spectral mixture analysis of high-resolution IKONOS satellite images, International Journal of Remote Sensing 28: 985–1000. https://doi.org/10.1080/01431160600784176
Norton, B. A.; Coutts, A. M.; Livesley, S. J.; Harris, R. J.; Hunter, A. M.; Williams, N. S. 2015. Planning for cooler cities: A framework to prioritise green infrastructure to mitigate high temperatures in urban landscapes, Landscape and Urban Planning 134: 127–138. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landurbplan.2014.10.018
Nowak, D. J.; Civerolo, K. L.; Rao, S. T.; Sistla, G.; Luley, C. J.; Crane, D. E. 2000. A modeling study of the impact of urban trees on ozone, Atmospheric Environment 34: 1601–1613. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1352-2310(99)00394-5
Nowak, D. J.; Crane, D. E.