Well-being effects of the digital platform economy: the case of temporary and self-employment
Abstract
The surge in non-traditional employment, including self-employment and temporary jobs, driven by the digital platform economy (commonly known as the gig economy), has thrust this form of work into the centre of social and political discussions. Among the European Union countries, Spain stands out with the highest volume of digital platform work. To explore the well-being effects of various gig economy employment arrangements, this study utilizes microdata from the Spanish Living Conditions Survey for 2018 and Google Trends data related to platforms like Deliveroo, Airbnb, Just Eat, Uber, and Freelance as a proxy for digital platform economy demand. Employing an econometric approach based on instrumental variables, the study reveals that the most detrimental well-being effects are observed among self-employed workers. Specifically, in terms of self-reported health, self-employed individuals (own-account workers) exhibit 125.8% lower average health levels compared to permanent workers. These findings suggest that the heightened job insecurity and precariousness associated with self-employment outweigh the potential benefits arising from greater flexibility and autonomy in this type of work.
first published online 17 September 2024
Keyword : digital platform economy, gig economy, digital platform work, self-employment, temporary jobs, well-being, self-reported health, happiness, life satisfaction
How to Cite
Blázquez, M., Herrarte, A., & Moro-Egido, A. I. (2024). Well-being effects of the digital platform economy: the case of temporary and self-employment. Technological and Economic Development of Economy, 1-34. https://doi.org/10.3846/tede.2024.21858
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
References
Abraham, K. G., Haltiwanger, J., Sandusky, K., & Spletzer, J. (2018). Measuring the gig economy: Current knowledge and open issues (NBER Working Paper 24950). National Bureau of Economic Research. https://doi.org/10.3386/w24950
Abraham, K. G., Haltiwanger, J., Sandusky, K., & Spletzer, J. (2019). The rise of the gig economy: Fact or fiction? AEA Papers and Proceedings, 109, 357–361. https://doi.org/10.1257/pandp.20191039
Alesina, A., Di Tella, R., & MacCulloch, R. (2004). Inequality and happiness: Are Europeans and Americans different? Journal of Public Economics, 88(9), 2009–2042. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpubeco.2003.07.006
Andersson, P. (2008). Happiness and health: Well-being among the self-employed. The Journal of Socio-Economics, 37(1), 213–236. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socec.2007.03.003
Apouey, B., & Stabile, M. (2019). The effects of self and temporary employment on mental health: The role of the gig economy in the UK (Working Paper 2019/23/EPS). INSEAD The Business School of the World.
Apouey, B., Roulet, A., Solal. I. & Stabile, M. (2020). Gig workers during the COVID-19 crisis in France: Financial precarity and mental well-being. Journal of Urban Health, 97(6), 776–795. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11524-020-00480-4
Ashford, S. J., Lee, C., & Bobko, P. (1989). Content, causes, and consequences of job insecurity: A theory-based measure and substantive test. Academy of Management Journal, 32(4), 803–829.
Bajwa, U., Gastaldo, D., Di Ruggiero, E., & Knorr, L. (2018). The health of workers in the global gig economy. Global Health, 14, Article 124. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12992-018-0444-8
Banks, C. (2019). Health, safety, well-being and economic security implications of gig work: An interdisciplinary perspective. “Think Piece” for ILO World Day for Safety and Health at Work. Interdisciplinary Center for Healthy Workplaces, UC Berkeley.
Bardasi, E., & Francesconi, M. (2004). The impact of atypical employment on individual wellbeing: Evidence from a panel of British workers. Social Science and Medicine, 58(9), 1671–1688. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0277-9536(03)00400-3
Bartoll, X., Gil, J., & Ramos, R. (2019). Temporary employment, work stress and mental health before and after the Spanish economic recession. International Archives of Occupational and Environmental Health, 92, 1047–1059. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00420-019-01443-2
Benz, M., & Frey, B. S. (2008). Being independent is a great thing: Subjective evaluations of self-employment and hierarchy. Economica, 75, 362–383. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-0335.2007.00594.x
Bérastégui, P. (2021). Exposure to psychosocial risk factors in the gig economy: A systematic review. (ETUI Research Paper, Report 2021.01). SSRN. https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.3770016
Berger, T., Frey, C. B., Levin, G., & Danda, S. R. (2019). Uber happy? Work and wellbeing in the gig-economy. Economic Policy, 34(99), 429–477. https://doi.org/10.1093/epolic/eiz007
Binder, M., & Blankenberg, A. K. (2021). Self-employment and subjective well-being. In K. F. Zimmermann, K. F. (Ed.), Handbook of labor, human resources and population economics. Springer. https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.3768347
Binder, M., & Coad, A. (2013). Life satisfaction and self-employment: A matching approach. Small Business Economics, 40(4), 1009–1033. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11187-011-9413-9
Blanchard, O., & Landier, A. (2002). The perverse effects of partial labour market reform: Fixed-term contracts in France. The Economic Journal, 112(480), F214–F244. https://doi.org/10.1111/1468-0297.00047
Blanchflower, D. G., & Oswald, A. (1998). What makes an entrepreneur? Journal of Labor Economics, 16(1), 26–60. https://doi.org/10.1086/209881
Blanchflower, D. G. (2000). Self-employment in OECD countries. Labour Economics, 7, 471–505. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0927-5371(00)00011-7
Böheim, R., & Mühlberger, U. (2009). Dependent forms of self-employment in the UK. Identifying workers on the border between employment and self-Employment. Journal of Labour Market Research, 42(2), 182–195. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12651-009-0014-x
Cacioppo, J. T., & Patrick, B. (2008). Loneliness: Human nature and the need for social connection. W. W. Norton & Company.
Carrieri, V., Di Novi, C., Jacobs, R., & Robone, S. (2012). Well-Being and psychological consequences of temporary contracts: The case of younger Italian employees (CHE Research Paper 79). Centre for Health Economics, University of York.
Cheng, G.H.-L., & Chan, D.K.-S. (2008). Who suffers more from job insecurity? A meta-analytic review. Applied Psychology: An International Review, 57(2), 272–303. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1464-0597.2007.00312.x
Clark, A., Diener, E., Georgellis, Y., & Lucas, R. E. (2008). Lags and leads in life satisfaction: A Test of the Baseline Hypothesis. The Economic Journal, 118(529), 222–243. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-0297.2008.02150.x
Cottini, E., & Lucifora, C. (2013). Mental health and working conditions in Europe. ILR Review, 66(4), 958–988. https://doi.org/10.1177/001979391306600409
D’Amuri, F., & Marcucci, J. (2017). The predictive power of Google searches in forecasting US unemployment. International Journal of Forecasting, 33(4), 801–816. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijforecast.2017.03.004
Danner, D. D., Friessen, W. V., & Snowdon, D. A. (2001). Positive emotions in early life and longevity: Findings from the Nun study. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 80(5), 804–813. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.80.5.804
Dawson, C., Veliziotis, M., & Hopkins, B. (2017). Temporary employment, job satisfaction and subjective well-being. Economic and Industrial Democracy, 38(1), 69–98. https://doi.org/10.1177/0143831X14559781
Dawson, C., Veliziotis, M., Pacheco, G., & Webber, D. J. (2015). Is temporary employment a cause or consequence of poor mental health? A panel data analysis. Social Science & Medicine, 134, 50–58. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2015.04.001
De Cuyper, N., & De Witte, H. (2006). The impact of job insecurity and contract type on attitudes, well-being and behavioural reports: A psychological contract perspective. Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology, 79(3), 395–409. https://doi.org/10.1348/096317905X53660
De Cuyper, N., & De Witte, H. (2007). Job insecurity in temporary versus permanent workers: Associations with attitudes, well-being, and behaviour. Work & Stress, 21(1), 65–84. https://doi.org/10.1080/02678370701229050
De Stefano, V. (2016). The rise of the just-in-time workforce: On-demand work, crowdwork, and labor protection in the gig-economy. ILO Conditions of Work and Employment Series No. 71. International Labour Organization. https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.2682602
De Witte, H. (1999). Job insecurity and psychological well-being: review of the literature and exploration of some unresolved issues. European Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology, 8(2), 155–177. https://doi.org/10.1080/135943299398302
De Witte, H. (2005). Job insecurity: Review of the international literature on definitions, prevalence, antecedents and consequences. South African Journal of Industrial Psychology, 31(4), 1–6. https://doi.org/10.4102/sajip.v31i4.200
De Witte, H., & Näswall, K. (2003). Objective versus subjective job insecurity: Consequences of temporary work for job satisfaction and organizational commitment in four European countries. Economic and Industrial Democracy, 24, 149–188. https://doi.org/10.1177/0143831X03024002002
Di Tella, R., MacCulloch, R., & Oswald, A. (2003). The macroeconomics of happiness. Review of Economics and Statistics, 85, 809–827. https://doi.org/10.1162/003465303772815745
Drahokoupil, J., & Fabo, B. (2018). Outsourcing, offshoring and the deconstruction of employment: New and old challenges. In A. Serrano-Pascual & M. Jepsen (Eds.), The deconstruction of employment as a political question: ‘Employment’ as a floating signifier (pp. 33–61). Springer Verlag. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-93617-8_2
Eichhorst W., Marx, P., & Wehner, C. (2017). Labor market reforms in Europe: Towards more flexicure labor markets? Journal for Labour Market Research, 51(3), 1–17. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12651-017-0231-7
Eichhorst, W., & Tobsch, V. (2017). Risk of precariousness: Results from European Working Conditions Survey 2010 and 2015. Brussels. Economy and Scientific Policy European Parliament.
Ertel, M., Pech, E., Ullsperger, P., Von Dem Knesebeck, O., & Siegrist, J. (2005). Adverse psychosocial working conditions and subjective health in freelance media workers. Work Stress, 19(3), 293–299. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/02678370500307289
Escudero-Castillo, I., Mato Díaz, F.J. & Rodriguez-Alvarez, A. (2023). Effects of precarious work on mental health: Evidence from Spain. Applied Economics, 55(14), 1603–1620. https://doi.org/10.1080/00036846.2022.2098241
Eurofound. (2017). Exploring self-employment in the European Union. Publications Office of the European Union, Luxembourg. https://doi.org/10.2806/651917
European Commission. (2017). Second phase consultation of Social Partners under Article 154 TFEU on a possible revision of the Written Statement Directive (Directive 91/533/EEC) in the framework of the European Pillar of Social Rights {C(2017) 6121 final}. European Commission, Brussels.
Fabrin-Petersen, R. (2022). The effects of non-standard employment on subjective well-being: A meta-analytic review. Advances in Methodology and Statistics, 19(1), 1–39. https://doi.org/10.51936/uspx6788
Felgueroso, F., García-Pérez, J. I., Jansen, M., & Troncoso-Ponce, D. (2017). Recent trends in the use of temporary contracts in Spain. Studies on the Spanish Economy eee2017-25, FEDEA.
Ferrer-i-Carbonell, A., & Frijters, P. (2004). How important is methodology for the estimates of the determinants of happiness? The Economic Journal, 114, 641–659. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-0297.2004.00235.x
Gevaert, J., De Moortel, D., Wilkens, M., & Vanroelen, C. (2018). What’s up with the self-employed? A cross-national perspective on the self-employed’s work-related mental well-being. SSM – Population Health, 4, 317–326. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ssmph.2018.04.001
Glavin, P., & Schieman, S. (2022). Dependency and hardship in the gig economy: The mental health consequences of platform work. Socius, 8. https://doi.org/10.1177/23780231221082414
GOVUP & Adigital. (2017). Trabajo en plataformas digitales: Análisis y propuestas de regulación. Adigital, Madrid.
Greenhalgh, L., & Rosenblatt, Z. (2010). Evolution of research on job insecurity. International Studies of Management & Organization, 40(1), 6–19. https://doi.org/10.2753/IMO0020-8825400101
Gross, S.-A., Musgrave, G., & Janciute, L. (2018). Well-being and mental health in the gig economy: Policy perspectives on precarity (Vol. 4). University of Westminster Press. https://doi.org/10.16997/book32
Helbling, L., & Kanji, S. (2018). Job insecurity: Differential effects of subjective and objective measures on life satisfaction trajectories of workers aged 27–30 in Germany. Social Indicators Research, 137, 1145–1162. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11205-017-1635-z
Hyytinen, A., & Ruuskanen, O. P. (2007). Time use of the self-employed. Kyklos, 60(1), 105–122. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-6435.2007.00361.x
International Labour Office. (2015, February 16–19). Non-standard forms of employment. Report for discussion at the Meeting of Experts on Non-Standard Forms of Employment, Geneva.
International Labour Office. (2016). Non-standard employment around the world: Understanding challenges, shaping prospects. Geneva.
International Labour Office. (2018). Digital labour platforms and the future of work: Towards decent work in the online world. Geneva.
Inanc, H. (2018). Unemployment, temporary work, and subjective well-being: The gendered effect of spousal labor market insecurity. American Sociological Review, 83(3), 536–566. https://doi.org/10.1177/0003122418772061
Kara, A., & Petrescu, M. (2018). Self-employment and its relationship to subjective well-being. International Review of Entrepreneurship, 16(1), 115–140.
Karabchuk, T., & Soboleva, N. (2020). Temporary employment, informal work and subjective well-being across Europe: Does labor legislation matter? Journal of Happiness Studies, 21, 1879–1901. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10902-019-00152-4
Kässi, O., & Lehdonvirta, V. (2016). Building the online labour index: a tool for policy and research. CSCW and the Sharing Economy: The Future of Platforms as Sites of Work Collaboration and Trust. Association for Computing Machinery.
Kässi, O., & Lehdonvirta, V. (2018). Online labour index: Measuring the online gig economy for policy and research. Technological Forecasting and Social Change, 137, 241–248. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.techfore.2018.07.056
Kautonen, T., Down, S., Welter, F., Vainio, P., Palmroos, J., Althoff, K., & Kolb, S. (2010). ‘Involuntary self-employment’ as a public policy issue: A cross-country European review. International Journal of Entrepreneurial Behaviour and Research, 16(2), 112–129. https://doi.org/10.1108/13552551011027002
Kawaguchi, D. (2008). Self-employment rents: Evidence from job satisfaction scores. Hitotsubashi Journal of Economics, 49(1), 35–45.
Keim, A. C., Landis, R. S., Pierce, C. A., & Earnest, D. R. (2014). Why do employees worry about their jobs? A meta-analytic review of predictors of job insecurity. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 19(3), 269–290. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0036743
Keith, M. G., Harms, P. D., & Long, A. C. (2020). Worker health and well-being in the gig economy: A proposed framework and research agenda. In P. L. Perrewé, P. D. Harms, & C.-H. Chang (Eds.), Entrepreneurial and small business stressors, experienced stress, and well being. Emerald Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1108/S1479-355520200000018002
Klein Hesselink, D. J., & van Vuuren, T. (1999). Job flexibility and job insecurity: The Dutch case. European Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology, 8, 273–293. https://doi.org/10.1080/135943299398366
Millan, J. M, Hessels, J., Thurik, R., & Aguado, R. (2013). Determinants of job satisfaction: A European comparison of self-employed and paid employees. Small Business Economics, 40, 651–670. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11187-011-9380-1
Monereo, J. (2016). Transformaciones del trabajo y futuro del derecho de trabajo en la “era de la flexibilidad”. Derecho de las relaciones laborales, 2016(5), 444–493.
Nordenmark, M., Vinberg, S., & Strandh, M. (2012). Job control and demands, work-life balance and wellbeing among self- employed men and women in Europe. Vulnerable Groups Inclusion, 3(1), Article 18896. https://doi.org/10.3402/vgi.v3i0.18896
OECD. (2015). Non-standard work, job polarisation and inequality, in In It Together: why less inequality benefits all. OECD Publishing, Paris. https://doi.org/10.1787/9789264235120-7-en
OECD. (2019). OECD employment outlook 2019: The future of work. OECD Publishing, Paris. https://doi.org/10.1787/9ee00155-en
OECD/ILO/European Union. (2023). Handbook on measuring digital platform employment and work. OECD Publishing, Paris. https://doi.org/10.1787/0ddcac3b-en
Pesole, A., Urzi Brancati, M. C., Fernandez-Macias, E., Biagi, F., & Gonzalez Vazquez, I. (2018). Platform workers in Europe evidence from the COLLEEM survey (EUR 29275 EN). Publications Office of the European Union, Luxembourg. https://doi.org/10.2760/742789
Ponzo, M. (2011). Status occupazionale e benessere soggettivo in Italia. QA Rivista dell Associazione Rossi-Doria, 3(3), 75–106. https://doi.org/10.3280/QU2011-003004
Probst, T. M. (2008). Job insecurity. In C. L. Cooper & J. Barling (Eds.), The SAGE handbook of organizational behavior: Volume I-micro approaches. SAGE Publications Ltd. https://doi.org/10.4135/9781849200448
Quesnel-Vallee, A., DeHaney, S., & Ciampi, A. (2010). Temporary work and depressive symptoms: A prospective score analysis. Social Science and Medicine, 70, 1982–1987. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2010.02.008
Robone, S., Jones, A. M., & Rice, N. (2011). Contractual conditions, working conditions, health and well-being in the British Household Panel Survey. The European Journal of Health Economics, 12, 429–444. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10198-010-0256-0
Rodríguez, E. (2002). Marginal employment and health in Britain and Germany: Does unstable employment predict health? Social Science and Medicine, 55(6), 963–979. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0277-9536(01)00234-9
Russo, C., & Terraneo, M. (2020). Mental well-being among workers: A crossnational analysis of job insecurity impact on the workforce. Social Indicators Research, 152, 421–442. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11205-020-02441-5
Scherer, S. (2009). The social consequences of insecure Jobs. Social Indicators Research, 93, 527–547. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11205-008-9431-4
Schulze Buschoff, K., & Schmidt, C. (2009). Adapting labour law and social security to the needs of the ‘new self-employed’ – comparing the UK, Germany and the Netherlands. Journal of European Social Policy, 19(2), 147–159. https://doi.org/10.1177/0958928708101867
Schumann, P., & Kuchinke, L. (2020). Do(n’t) worry, it’s temporary: The effects of fixed-term employment on affective well-being. Journal of Happiness Studies, 21, 2557–2582. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10902-019-00194-8
Schwellnus, C., Geva, A., Pak, M., & Veiel, R. (2019). Gig economy platforms: Boon or Bane? (OECD Economics Department Working Papers, No. 1550). OECD Publishing, Paris. https://doi.org/10.1787/fdb0570b-en
Silla, I., Gracia, F. J., & Peiro, J. M. (2005). Job insecurity and health-related outcomes among different types of temporary workers. Economic and Industrial Democracy, 26, 89–117. https://doi.org/10.1177/0143831X05049404
Stone, K. V. (2006). Legal protections for atypical employees: employment law for workers without workplaces and employees without employers. Berkeley Journal of Employment and Labour Law, 27(2), 251–286. https://doi.org/10.15779/Z38Q342
Sverke, M., Gallagher, D. G., & Hellgren, J. (2000). Alternative work arrangments: Job stress, well-being, and work attitudes among employees with different employment contracts. In K. Isaksson, L. Hogstedt, C. Eriksson & T. Theorell (Eds.), Health effects of the new labour market. Plenum.
Sverke, M., Hellgren, J., & Naswall, K. (2002). No security: A meta-analysis and review of job insecurity and its consequences. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 7(3), 242–264. https://doi.org/10.1037/1076-8998.7.3.242
Syrett, M. (2016). Independent professionals (IPros) and well-being: An emerging focus for research? Journal of Management and Organization, 22(6), 817–825. https://doi.org/10.1017/jmo.2016.54
Valletta, R. G., Bengali, L., & van der List, C. (2020). Cyclical and market determinants of involuntary part-time employment. Journal of Labor Economics, 38(1), 67–93. https://doi.org/10.1086/704496
Virtanen, J., Vahtera, M., Kivimäki, J., Pentii, J., & Ferrie, J. (2002). Employment security and health. Journal of Epidemiological Community Health, 56, 569–574. https://doi.org/10.1136/jech.56.8.569
Vučeković, M., Avlijaš, G., Marković, M. R., Radulović, D., Dragojević, A., & Marković, D. (2023). The relationship between working in the “gig” economy and perceived subjective well-being in Western Balkan countries. Frontiers in Psychology, 14. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1180532
Wang, S., Li, L. Z., & Coutts, A. (2022). National survey of mental health and life satisfaction of gig workers: The role of loneliness and financial precarity. BMJ Open, 12, Article e066389. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmjopen-2022-066389
Westerveld, M. (2012). The “new” self-employed: An issue for social policy? European Journal of Social Security, 14(3), 156–173. https://doi.org/10.1177/138826271201400301
Wood, A. J., Graham, M., Lehdonvirta, V., & Hjorth, I. (2018). Good gig, bad gig: Autonomy and algorithmic control in the global gig economy. Work, Employment and Society, 33(1), 56–75. https://doi.org/10.1177/0950017018785616
Wu, Q. M. (2023). Employment precarity, COVID-19 risk, and workers’ well-being during the pandemic in Europe. Work and Occupations, 50(2), 188–211. https://doi.org/10.1177/07308884221126415
Abraham, K. G., Haltiwanger, J., Sandusky, K., & Spletzer, J. (2019). The rise of the gig economy: Fact or fiction? AEA Papers and Proceedings, 109, 357–361. https://doi.org/10.1257/pandp.20191039
Alesina, A., Di Tella, R., & MacCulloch, R. (2004). Inequality and happiness: Are Europeans and Americans different? Journal of Public Economics, 88(9), 2009–2042. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpubeco.2003.07.006
Andersson, P. (2008). Happiness and health: Well-being among the self-employed. The Journal of Socio-Economics, 37(1), 213–236. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socec.2007.03.003
Apouey, B., & Stabile, M. (2019). The effects of self and temporary employment on mental health: The role of the gig economy in the UK (Working Paper 2019/23/EPS). INSEAD The Business School of the World.
Apouey, B., Roulet, A., Solal. I. & Stabile, M. (2020). Gig workers during the COVID-19 crisis in France: Financial precarity and mental well-being. Journal of Urban Health, 97(6), 776–795. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11524-020-00480-4
Ashford, S. J., Lee, C., & Bobko, P. (1989). Content, causes, and consequences of job insecurity: A theory-based measure and substantive test. Academy of Management Journal, 32(4), 803–829.
Bajwa, U., Gastaldo, D., Di Ruggiero, E., & Knorr, L. (2018). The health of workers in the global gig economy. Global Health, 14, Article 124. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12992-018-0444-8
Banks, C. (2019). Health, safety, well-being and economic security implications of gig work: An interdisciplinary perspective. “Think Piece” for ILO World Day for Safety and Health at Work. Interdisciplinary Center for Healthy Workplaces, UC Berkeley.
Bardasi, E., & Francesconi, M. (2004). The impact of atypical employment on individual wellbeing: Evidence from a panel of British workers. Social Science and Medicine, 58(9), 1671–1688. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0277-9536(03)00400-3
Bartoll, X., Gil, J., & Ramos, R. (2019). Temporary employment, work stress and mental health before and after the Spanish economic recession. International Archives of Occupational and Environmental Health, 92, 1047–1059. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00420-019-01443-2
Benz, M., & Frey, B. S. (2008). Being independent is a great thing: Subjective evaluations of self-employment and hierarchy. Economica, 75, 362–383. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-0335.2007.00594.x
Bérastégui, P. (2021). Exposure to psychosocial risk factors in the gig economy: A systematic review. (ETUI Research Paper, Report 2021.01). SSRN. https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.3770016
Berger, T., Frey, C. B., Levin, G., & Danda, S. R. (2019). Uber happy? Work and wellbeing in the gig-economy. Economic Policy, 34(99), 429–477. https://doi.org/10.1093/epolic/eiz007
Binder, M., & Blankenberg, A. K. (2021). Self-employment and subjective well-being. In K. F. Zimmermann, K. F. (Ed.), Handbook of labor, human resources and population economics. Springer. https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.3768347
Binder, M., & Coad, A. (2013). Life satisfaction and self-employment: A matching approach. Small Business Economics, 40(4), 1009–1033. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11187-011-9413-9
Blanchard, O., & Landier, A. (2002). The perverse effects of partial labour market reform: Fixed-term contracts in France. The Economic Journal, 112(480), F214–F244. https://doi.org/10.1111/1468-0297.00047
Blanchflower, D. G., & Oswald, A. (1998). What makes an entrepreneur? Journal of Labor Economics, 16(1), 26–60. https://doi.org/10.1086/209881
Blanchflower, D. G. (2000). Self-employment in OECD countries. Labour Economics, 7, 471–505. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0927-5371(00)00011-7
Böheim, R., & Mühlberger, U. (2009). Dependent forms of self-employment in the UK. Identifying workers on the border between employment and self-Employment. Journal of Labour Market Research, 42(2), 182–195. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12651-009-0014-x
Cacioppo, J. T., & Patrick, B. (2008). Loneliness: Human nature and the need for social connection. W. W. Norton & Company.
Carrieri, V., Di Novi, C., Jacobs, R., & Robone, S. (2012). Well-Being and psychological consequences of temporary contracts: The case of younger Italian employees (CHE Research Paper 79). Centre for Health Economics, University of York.
Cheng, G.H.-L., & Chan, D.K.-S. (2008). Who suffers more from job insecurity? A meta-analytic review. Applied Psychology: An International Review, 57(2), 272–303. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1464-0597.2007.00312.x
Clark, A., Diener, E., Georgellis, Y., & Lucas, R. E. (2008). Lags and leads in life satisfaction: A Test of the Baseline Hypothesis. The Economic Journal, 118(529), 222–243. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-0297.2008.02150.x
Cottini, E., & Lucifora, C. (2013). Mental health and working conditions in Europe. ILR Review, 66(4), 958–988. https://doi.org/10.1177/001979391306600409
D’Amuri, F., & Marcucci, J. (2017). The predictive power of Google searches in forecasting US unemployment. International Journal of Forecasting, 33(4), 801–816. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijforecast.2017.03.004
Danner, D. D., Friessen, W. V., & Snowdon, D. A. (2001). Positive emotions in early life and longevity: Findings from the Nun study. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 80(5), 804–813. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.80.5.804
Dawson, C., Veliziotis, M., & Hopkins, B. (2017). Temporary employment, job satisfaction and subjective well-being. Economic and Industrial Democracy, 38(1), 69–98. https://doi.org/10.1177/0143831X14559781
Dawson, C., Veliziotis, M., Pacheco, G., & Webber, D. J. (2015). Is temporary employment a cause or consequence of poor mental health? A panel data analysis. Social Science & Medicine, 134, 50–58. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2015.04.001
De Cuyper, N., & De Witte, H. (2006). The impact of job insecurity and contract type on attitudes, well-being and behavioural reports: A psychological contract perspective. Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology, 79(3), 395–409. https://doi.org/10.1348/096317905X53660
De Cuyper, N., & De Witte, H. (2007). Job insecurity in temporary versus permanent workers: Associations with attitudes, well-being, and behaviour. Work & Stress, 21(1), 65–84. https://doi.org/10.1080/02678370701229050
De Stefano, V. (2016). The rise of the just-in-time workforce: On-demand work, crowdwork, and labor protection in the gig-economy. ILO Conditions of Work and Employment Series No. 71. International Labour Organization. https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.2682602
De Witte, H. (1999). Job insecurity and psychological well-being: review of the literature and exploration of some unresolved issues. European Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology, 8(2), 155–177. https://doi.org/10.1080/135943299398302
De Witte, H. (2005). Job insecurity: Review of the international literature on definitions, prevalence, antecedents and consequences. South African Journal of Industrial Psychology, 31(4), 1–6. https://doi.org/10.4102/sajip.v31i4.200
De Witte, H., & Näswall, K. (2003). Objective versus subjective job insecurity: Consequences of temporary work for job satisfaction and organizational commitment in four European countries. Economic and Industrial Democracy, 24, 149–188. https://doi.org/10.1177/0143831X03024002002
Di Tella, R., MacCulloch, R., & Oswald, A. (2003). The macroeconomics of happiness. Review of Economics and Statistics, 85, 809–827. https://doi.org/10.1162/003465303772815745
Drahokoupil, J., & Fabo, B. (2018). Outsourcing, offshoring and the deconstruction of employment: New and old challenges. In A. Serrano-Pascual & M. Jepsen (Eds.), The deconstruction of employment as a political question: ‘Employment’ as a floating signifier (pp. 33–61). Springer Verlag. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-93617-8_2
Eichhorst W., Marx, P., & Wehner, C. (2017). Labor market reforms in Europe: Towards more flexicure labor markets? Journal for Labour Market Research, 51(3), 1–17. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12651-017-0231-7
Eichhorst, W., & Tobsch, V. (2017). Risk of precariousness: Results from European Working Conditions Survey 2010 and 2015. Brussels. Economy and Scientific Policy European Parliament.
Ertel, M., Pech, E., Ullsperger, P., Von Dem Knesebeck, O., & Siegrist, J. (2005). Adverse psychosocial working conditions and subjective health in freelance media workers. Work Stress, 19(3), 293–299. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/02678370500307289
Escudero-Castillo, I., Mato Díaz, F.J. & Rodriguez-Alvarez, A. (2023). Effects of precarious work on mental health: Evidence from Spain. Applied Economics, 55(14), 1603–1620. https://doi.org/10.1080/00036846.2022.2098241
Eurofound. (2017). Exploring self-employment in the European Union. Publications Office of the European Union, Luxembourg. https://doi.org/10.2806/651917
European Commission. (2017). Second phase consultation of Social Partners under Article 154 TFEU on a possible revision of the Written Statement Directive (Directive 91/533/EEC) in the framework of the European Pillar of Social Rights {C(2017) 6121 final}. European Commission, Brussels.
Fabrin-Petersen, R. (2022). The effects of non-standard employment on subjective well-being: A meta-analytic review. Advances in Methodology and Statistics, 19(1), 1–39. https://doi.org/10.51936/uspx6788
Felgueroso, F., García-Pérez, J. I., Jansen, M., & Troncoso-Ponce, D. (2017). Recent trends in the use of temporary contracts in Spain. Studies on the Spanish Economy eee2017-25, FEDEA.
Ferrer-i-Carbonell, A., & Frijters, P. (2004). How important is methodology for the estimates of the determinants of happiness? The Economic Journal, 114, 641–659. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-0297.2004.00235.x
Gevaert, J., De Moortel, D., Wilkens, M., & Vanroelen, C. (2018). What’s up with the self-employed? A cross-national perspective on the self-employed’s work-related mental well-being. SSM – Population Health, 4, 317–326. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ssmph.2018.04.001
Glavin, P., & Schieman, S. (2022). Dependency and hardship in the gig economy: The mental health consequences of platform work. Socius, 8. https://doi.org/10.1177/23780231221082414
GOVUP & Adigital. (2017). Trabajo en plataformas digitales: Análisis y propuestas de regulación. Adigital, Madrid.
Greenhalgh, L., & Rosenblatt, Z. (2010). Evolution of research on job insecurity. International Studies of Management & Organization, 40(1), 6–19. https://doi.org/10.2753/IMO0020-8825400101
Gross, S.-A., Musgrave, G., & Janciute, L. (2018). Well-being and mental health in the gig economy: Policy perspectives on precarity (Vol. 4). University of Westminster Press. https://doi.org/10.16997/book32
Helbling, L., & Kanji, S. (2018). Job insecurity: Differential effects of subjective and objective measures on life satisfaction trajectories of workers aged 27–30 in Germany. Social Indicators Research, 137, 1145–1162. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11205-017-1635-z
Hyytinen, A., & Ruuskanen, O. P. (2007). Time use of the self-employed. Kyklos, 60(1), 105–122. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-6435.2007.00361.x
International Labour Office. (2015, February 16–19). Non-standard forms of employment. Report for discussion at the Meeting of Experts on Non-Standard Forms of Employment, Geneva.
International Labour Office. (2016). Non-standard employment around the world: Understanding challenges, shaping prospects. Geneva.
International Labour Office. (2018). Digital labour platforms and the future of work: Towards decent work in the online world. Geneva.
Inanc, H. (2018). Unemployment, temporary work, and subjective well-being: The gendered effect of spousal labor market insecurity. American Sociological Review, 83(3), 536–566. https://doi.org/10.1177/0003122418772061
Kara, A., & Petrescu, M. (2018). Self-employment and its relationship to subjective well-being. International Review of Entrepreneurship, 16(1), 115–140.
Karabchuk, T., & Soboleva, N. (2020). Temporary employment, informal work and subjective well-being across Europe: Does labor legislation matter? Journal of Happiness Studies, 21, 1879–1901. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10902-019-00152-4
Kässi, O., & Lehdonvirta, V. (2016). Building the online labour index: a tool for policy and research. CSCW and the Sharing Economy: The Future of Platforms as Sites of Work Collaboration and Trust. Association for Computing Machinery.
Kässi, O., & Lehdonvirta, V. (2018). Online labour index: Measuring the online gig economy for policy and research. Technological Forecasting and Social Change, 137, 241–248. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.techfore.2018.07.056
Kautonen, T., Down, S., Welter, F., Vainio, P., Palmroos, J., Althoff, K., & Kolb, S. (2010). ‘Involuntary self-employment’ as a public policy issue: A cross-country European review. International Journal of Entrepreneurial Behaviour and Research, 16(2), 112–129. https://doi.org/10.1108/13552551011027002
Kawaguchi, D. (2008). Self-employment rents: Evidence from job satisfaction scores. Hitotsubashi Journal of Economics, 49(1), 35–45.
Keim, A. C., Landis, R. S., Pierce, C. A., & Earnest, D. R. (2014). Why do employees worry about their jobs? A meta-analytic review of predictors of job insecurity. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 19(3), 269–290. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0036743
Keith, M. G., Harms, P. D., & Long, A. C. (2020). Worker health and well-being in the gig economy: A proposed framework and research agenda. In P. L. Perrewé, P. D. Harms, & C.-H. Chang (Eds.), Entrepreneurial and small business stressors, experienced stress, and well being. Emerald Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1108/S1479-355520200000018002
Klein Hesselink, D. J., & van Vuuren, T. (1999). Job flexibility and job insecurity: The Dutch case. European Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology, 8, 273–293. https://doi.org/10.1080/135943299398366
Millan, J. M, Hessels, J., Thurik, R., & Aguado, R. (2013). Determinants of job satisfaction: A European comparison of self-employed and paid employees. Small Business Economics, 40, 651–670. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11187-011-9380-1
Monereo, J. (2016). Transformaciones del trabajo y futuro del derecho de trabajo en la “era de la flexibilidad”. Derecho de las relaciones laborales, 2016(5), 444–493.
Nordenmark, M., Vinberg, S., & Strandh, M. (2012). Job control and demands, work-life balance and wellbeing among self- employed men and women in Europe. Vulnerable Groups Inclusion, 3(1), Article 18896. https://doi.org/10.3402/vgi.v3i0.18896
OECD. (2015). Non-standard work, job polarisation and inequality, in In It Together: why less inequality benefits all. OECD Publishing, Paris. https://doi.org/10.1787/9789264235120-7-en
OECD. (2019). OECD employment outlook 2019: The future of work. OECD Publishing, Paris. https://doi.org/10.1787/9ee00155-en
OECD/ILO/European Union. (2023). Handbook on measuring digital platform employment and work. OECD Publishing, Paris. https://doi.org/10.1787/0ddcac3b-en
Pesole, A., Urzi Brancati, M. C., Fernandez-Macias, E., Biagi, F., & Gonzalez Vazquez, I. (2018). Platform workers in Europe evidence from the COLLEEM survey (EUR 29275 EN). Publications Office of the European Union, Luxembourg. https://doi.org/10.2760/742789
Ponzo, M. (2011). Status occupazionale e benessere soggettivo in Italia. QA Rivista dell Associazione Rossi-Doria, 3(3), 75–106. https://doi.org/10.3280/QU2011-003004
Probst, T. M. (2008). Job insecurity. In C. L. Cooper & J. Barling (Eds.), The SAGE handbook of organizational behavior: Volume I-micro approaches. SAGE Publications Ltd. https://doi.org/10.4135/9781849200448
Quesnel-Vallee, A., DeHaney, S., & Ciampi, A. (2010). Temporary work and depressive symptoms: A prospective score analysis. Social Science and Medicine, 70, 1982–1987. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2010.02.008
Robone, S., Jones, A. M., & Rice, N. (2011). Contractual conditions, working conditions, health and well-being in the British Household Panel Survey. The European Journal of Health Economics, 12, 429–444. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10198-010-0256-0
Rodríguez, E. (2002). Marginal employment and health in Britain and Germany: Does unstable employment predict health? Social Science and Medicine, 55(6), 963–979. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0277-9536(01)00234-9
Russo, C., & Terraneo, M. (2020). Mental well-being among workers: A crossnational analysis of job insecurity impact on the workforce. Social Indicators Research, 152, 421–442. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11205-020-02441-5
Scherer, S. (2009). The social consequences of insecure Jobs. Social Indicators Research, 93, 527–547. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11205-008-9431-4
Schulze Buschoff, K., & Schmidt, C. (2009). Adapting labour law and social security to the needs of the ‘new self-employed’ – comparing the UK, Germany and the Netherlands. Journal of European Social Policy, 19(2), 147–159. https://doi.org/10.1177/0958928708101867
Schumann, P., & Kuchinke, L. (2020). Do(n’t) worry, it’s temporary: The effects of fixed-term employment on affective well-being. Journal of Happiness Studies, 21, 2557–2582. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10902-019-00194-8
Schwellnus, C., Geva, A., Pak, M., & Veiel, R. (2019). Gig economy platforms: Boon or Bane? (OECD Economics Department Working Papers, No. 1550). OECD Publishing, Paris. https://doi.org/10.1787/fdb0570b-en
Silla, I., Gracia, F. J., & Peiro, J. M. (2005). Job insecurity and health-related outcomes among different types of temporary workers. Economic and Industrial Democracy, 26, 89–117. https://doi.org/10.1177/0143831X05049404
Stone, K. V. (2006). Legal protections for atypical employees: employment law for workers without workplaces and employees without employers. Berkeley Journal of Employment and Labour Law, 27(2), 251–286. https://doi.org/10.15779/Z38Q342
Sverke, M., Gallagher, D. G., & Hellgren, J. (2000). Alternative work arrangments: Job stress, well-being, and work attitudes among employees with different employment contracts. In K. Isaksson, L. Hogstedt, C. Eriksson & T. Theorell (Eds.), Health effects of the new labour market. Plenum.
Sverke, M., Hellgren, J., & Naswall, K. (2002). No security: A meta-analysis and review of job insecurity and its consequences. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 7(3), 242–264. https://doi.org/10.1037/1076-8998.7.3.242
Syrett, M. (2016). Independent professionals (IPros) and well-being: An emerging focus for research? Journal of Management and Organization, 22(6), 817–825. https://doi.org/10.1017/jmo.2016.54
Valletta, R. G., Bengali, L., & van der List, C. (2020). Cyclical and market determinants of involuntary part-time employment. Journal of Labor Economics, 38(1), 67–93. https://doi.org/10.1086/704496
Virtanen, J., Vahtera, M., Kivimäki, J., Pentii, J., & Ferrie, J. (2002). Employment security and health. Journal of Epidemiological Community Health, 56, 569–574. https://doi.org/10.1136/jech.56.8.569
Vučeković, M., Avlijaš, G., Marković, M. R., Radulović, D., Dragojević, A., & Marković, D. (2023). The relationship between working in the “gig” economy and perceived subjective well-being in Western Balkan countries. Frontiers in Psychology, 14. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1180532
Wang, S., Li, L. Z., & Coutts, A. (2022). National survey of mental health and life satisfaction of gig workers: The role of loneliness and financial precarity. BMJ Open, 12, Article e066389. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmjopen-2022-066389
Westerveld, M. (2012). The “new” self-employed: An issue for social policy? European Journal of Social Security, 14(3), 156–173. https://doi.org/10.1177/138826271201400301
Wood, A. J., Graham, M., Lehdonvirta, V., & Hjorth, I. (2018). Good gig, bad gig: Autonomy and algorithmic control in the global gig economy. Work, Employment and Society, 33(1), 56–75. https://doi.org/10.1177/0950017018785616
Wu, Q. M. (2023). Employment precarity, COVID-19 risk, and workers’ well-being during the pandemic in Europe. Work and Occupations, 50(2), 188–211. https://doi.org/10.1177/07308884221126415